Abstract
Variants close to the VPS13C/C2CD4A/C2CD4B locus are associated with altered risk of type 2 diabetes in genome-wide association studies. Whilst previous functional work has suggested roles for VPS13C and C2CD4A in disease development, none has explored the role of C2CD4B. Here, we show that systemic inactivation of C2cd4b in mice leads to marked, but highly sexually dimorphic, changes in body weight and glucose homeostasis. Female C2cd4b mice display unchanged body weight but abnormal glucose tolerance and defective in vivo, but not in vitro, insulin secretion, associated with a marked decrease in follicle stimulating hormone levels. In sharp contrast, male C2cd4b null mice displayed normal glucose tolerance but an increase in body weight and fasting glycemia after maintenance on high fat diet. No metabolic disturbances were observed after global inactivation of C2cd4a in mice, or in pancreatic β cell function at larval stages in C2cd4ab null zebrafish. These studies suggest that C2cd4b may act centrally to influence sex-dependent circuits which control pancreatic β cell function and glucose tolerance in rodents. However, the absence of sexual dimorphism in the impact of diabetes risk variants argues for additional roles for C2CD4A or VPS13C in the control of glucose homeostasis in man.
Introduction
Type 2 diabetes risk is the product of both environmental and genetic factors. More than 200 loci have now been described as affecting risk score (1). Whilst most of these affect insulin secretion (2), the identified variants usually lie within or between neighbouring genes and in only a few cases have the causal gene(s) been firmly established (3,4).
Chromosome 15q hosts a risk locus close to the VPS13C, C2CD4A and C2CD4B genes (5) associated with impaired proinsulin processing. Deletion of Vps13c, which encodes a lipid transporter (6), selectively from the pancreatic β cell (7), has little effect on glucose homeostasis in the mouse. This finding argues that the latter gene contributes only to a limited extent towards the effect(s) of risk variants in man. Previous expression quantitative trait (eQTL) studies have demonstrated altered expression of VPS13C and C2CD4A (7), as well as C2CD4B (8) in islets from subjects carrying the risk variants. Recently, Kycia et al. (9) reported that expression of C2CD4B, but not C2CD4A or VPS13C, was affected by risk alleles. However, the direction of effects of risk alleles differed between the reports, with expression lowered, uniquely in females, in the study of Mehta et al. (7) but increased in that of Kycia et al. (9). However, both of the latter studies involved relatively small sample numbers. These limitations emphasise the need for interventional studies, involving gene inactivation in tractable model systems such as rodents or fish, as a means of understanding the roles of these genes in metabolic homeostasis.
C2CD4A and C2CD4B (also called NLF1 and NLF2) (10) encode low molecular mass (39 kDa) proteins of presently unknown function. Unlike the homologous C2CD4C gene (expressed from a distinct locus on chromosome 19 in H. sapiens), neither C2CD4A nor C2CD4B possess a canonical Ca2+/phospholipid binding C2-domain (11). A partly functional Ca2+ binding domain may be present on C2CD4B (Supp. Fig.1). Given the essential role for Ca2+ in the control of insulin and other hormone secretion (12), an interaction with Ca2+ might provide a means through which C2CD4A or C2CD4B influence these processes.
Originally described in endothelial cells as having a largely nuclear distribution, and inducible by cytokines (10), the role of C2CD4B has not been explored previously in β or other metabolically-relevant cell types. Nonetheless, silencing of the single homologous C2cd4a/b gene in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) led to a decrease in β cell mass (13). In contrast, silencing of the Drosophila Melanogaster C2CD4A homologue, Spenito, increased circulating levels of the insulin-like molecule IIp2HF (14). Inactivation of C2cd4c has no detectable effect on pancreatic development in mice (11).
A recent study (15) has indicated that regulation of C2cd4a expression in islets by FOXO1 may be important for the control of insulin secretion. Thus, animals inactivated selectively in the β cell for C2cd4a displayed abnormal insulin secretion in response to glucose plus arginine (the effects on secretion stimulated by glucose alone were not reported), and glucose intolerance in vivo, and the abnormal expression of β cell signature and “disallowed” genes (16). However, these studies used the Ins2-dependent RIP promoter to drive Cre expression, a strategy complicated by off-target recombination and ectopic expression of human growth hormone (17).
Here, we use the more direct approach of inactivating C2cd4b and C2cd4a globally in the mouse, and of deleting its homologue, C2cd4ab, in the developing zebrafish (D. rerio), to explore the role of these genes in glucose homeostasis.
Research Design and Methods
Animal work
C2cd4a (C2cd4a-Del1724-EM1-B6N) and C2cd4b (C2cd4bem2Wtsi) mouse strains were generated at the International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium (IMPC), using CRISPR/Cas9. Lean and fat mass were measured using an EchoMRI Quantitative Whole Body Composition analyser (Zinsser Analytic, USA) on unanaesthetised animals.
Glucose homeostasis
Animals were fasted overnight prior to experiments. For intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests (IPGTT), glucose (1 g/kg body weight) was injected into the abdomen. In oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), glucose (2 g/kg body weight) was administered directly into the gut via oral gavage. Blood glucose levels were recorded using an automatic glucometer (Accucheck). For insulin tolerance tests, animals were fasted for 5 h prior to experiments. Insulin was injected into the abdomen (concentrations indicated in the main text). Blood glucose levels were measured post-injection at the time points indicated. To measure insulin secretion in vivo, animals were fasted overnight and glucose (3 g/Kg body weight) injected into the abdomen. Blood insulin levels were measured using an Ultra-Sensitive Mouse Insulin ELISA Kit (Crystal Chem, 90080).
Circulating follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormone levels
Gonadectomy was conducted under isoflurane anaesthesia, and aseptic conditions, according to standard protocols. Animals received post-operative analgesia, and were allowed to recover for two weeks before collection of blood for hormone analysis (18).
Insulin secretion from isolated islets
Islets were isolated after pancreatic distension with collagenase, essentially as previously described (19). Insulin secretion was measured as described (20) with 10 size-matched islets in triplicate incubated in Krebs-HEPES-bicarbonate (KREBH) solution (20) containing either: 3 mM glucose, 17 mM glucose or 20 mM KCl at 37°C with gentle shaking. Insulin content was measured using an Insulin Ultra-Sensitive Kit (Supplementary methods).
Generation of C2CD4A and C2CD4B -FLAG and -GFP tagged constructs
Human C2CD4A and C2CD4B cDNA sequences were cloned in-frame into plasmid P3XFLAG-CMV-14 (Addgene) to provide a C-terminal 3xFLAG epitope tag. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged proteins were generated by inserting the human C2CD4A and -B cDNA sequences into the C-terminus of GFP using plasmid pEGFP-C1 (Addgene and Clontech).
Time-lapse imaging
Cells were grown on coverslips and transfected with either GFP-tagged C2CD4A, C2CD4B or Syt1-containing constructs. 24 h post-transfection, cells were incubated for 1 h at 37°C with aerated KREBH solution.
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using GraphPad prism 8.0. p-values <0.05 were considered significant.
Study approval
All mouse in vivo procedures were conducted in accordance with the UK Home Office Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act of 1986 (Project license PA03F7F0F to I.L.) as well as being approved by Imperial College Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body. All zebrafish work was approved by the ethical committee of the University of Liège (protocol number 13-1557) or under European Union and German laws (Tierschutzgesetz), and with the approval of the TU Dresden and the Landesdirektion Sachsen (approval license number: TVV 45/2018).
Additional methods are included in a separate file (Supplementary Methods).
Results
C2CD4A and C2CD4B expression in mouse and human islets
Human C2CD4A and C2CD4B are 83 % homologous. Like their murine homologues, the two human genes are predicted to have evolved from a common ancestor (see phylogenetic tree, Supp. Fig.2, A). Conservation of genomic architecture (synteny) at this locus argues for direct homology between the human and murine forms of each gene. The zebrafish D. rerio possesses two C2cd4-like genes homologous to H. sapiens and M. musculus: C2cd4a and C2cd4c (Supp. Fig.2, A). Analysis of gene expression databases (Biogps.org.), and previous publications (21) (22), reveals ~10-fold higher levels of C2cd4b than C2cd4a mRNA in mouse islets and purified mouse β cells (Supp. Table 1). In contrast, roughly equal levels of C2CD4A and C2CD4B mRNA are present in human islets (23) and purified β cells (24). Expression of both genes was detected in the pituitary in both human and mouse (Data Source: GTEx data, analysed in The Human Protein Atlas, URL: https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000198535-C2CD4A/tissue, https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000205502-C2CD4B/tissue). C2cd4a and C2cd4b were both upregulated in pancreatic islets of the high fat diet-fed DBA2J diabetic mouse model (Supp. Fig.3,A,B) (25). No evidence of C2CD4A or C2CD4B upregulation was observed in the islets of patients with T2D versus normoglycemic controls (26).
Examination of the human VPS13C/C2CD4A/C2CD4B locus revealed multiple regulatory elements (Fig.1), consistent with recent findings (9). A single nucleotide polymorphism, rs7163757, has recently been shown by fine mapping as the likely causal variant for T2D risk at this locus (9). Correspondingly, CRISPRa or CRISPRi at the rs7163757 site has the most marked effects on neighbouring genes (27), consistent with this being the effector variant (SNP). To explore in more detail the potential role of the enhancer around the diabetes risk variant rs7163757 (9), and whether it may play a role in gene expression in disease-relevant tissues (notably the islet and brain/pituitary), we introduced a reporter bearing 1303 nucleotides of the human sequence into the zebrafish genome, controlling the production of GFP from a minimal cFos promoter (Supp. Fig.2, B). Expression was restricted to the endocrine pancreas and brain at all stages (Supp. Fig. 2, C), and was detected in all islet cell types, most strongly in delta cells (Supp. Fig.2, D).
Role of c2cd4ab in the zebrafish larvae
Zebrafish possess a single gene, c2cd4ab, homologous to the two mammalian counterparts (Supp. Fig.2, A). As a convenient proxy for insulin secretion in the larvae of fish inactivated for c2cd4ab or in wild-type controls (see Methods), glucose-stimulated Ca2+ dynamics were monitored in vivo by imaging the fluorescence of a gCaM6 transgene. Ca2+ changes did not differ between wild type and mutant animals (Fig.2, A-E), arguing against a role for c2cd4ab in β cell function during development.
Female C2cd4b null mice are glucose intolerant and display defective insulin secretion in vivo
Given the substantially higher expression of C2cd4b than C2cd4a in mouse islets (Supp. Table 1), we studied mice in which the former gene was deleted globally (International mouse phenotyping consortium, IMPC, https://www.mousephenotype.org/) (Fig.3, A). Inter-crossing of heterozygous animals produced pups at the expected Mendelian ratio (Fig.3, B) and resulted in complete elimination of C2cd4b mRNA from isolated islets (Fig.3, C). Female C2cd4b null mice gained weight at the same rate as control littermates whether maintained on regular chow (RC) or a high -fat and -sucrose diet (HFD) (Fig.3, D), and no differences were apparent in fed or fasting glycemia either on RC (Supp. Fig.4, A,C) or HFD (Fig.3, F and Supp. Fig.4, E). Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance was examined for animals maintained on RC (Supp. Fig.5) or HFD (Supp. Fig.6) from 8-22 weeks of age. Females displayed abnormalities from 12 weeks of age on RC (Supp. Fig.5, A,C,E,G), and 8 weeks on HFD (Supp. Fig.6, A,C,E) with data at 22 weeks shown in Fig.4, A,C. Whereas oral glucose tolerance was normal on RC (not shown), defects were observed on HFD (Fig.4, E). For female mice on RC, these changes were associated with defective insulin secretion in vivo (Fig.5, A) as also indicated by unchanged insulin levels after glucose injection despite elevated plasma glucose levels in female knockout mice maintained on HFD (Fig.5, C). This was despite any reduction in β cell mass, as assessed by histochemical analysis of pancreatic slices (Supp. Fig.7, A-D). Furthermore, we observed no differences in C2cd4b null female mice by homeostasis model assessment of β cell function (HOMA2-%B) (Supp. Fig.8, A,C). Likewise, insulin sensitivity was not different between C2cd4b null and wild type mice (Supp. Fig.9, A,C).
Examined in vitro, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was not different between islets from wild type or C2cd4b null female mice maintained on RC diet (Supp Fig. 10, A), but was slightly elevated in those from female null mice maintained on HFD (Supp. Fig.10, C). Likewise, we observed no alterations in glucose or KCl-stimulated stimulated Ca2+ dynamics (Supp. Fig.11, A,B) or in β cell-β cell coupling (Supp. Fig.11, C-F). Correspondingly, no changes in voltage-activated Ca2+ currents were apparent in patch clap recordings (Supp. Fig.12, A-C). Massive parallel sequencing (RNA-Seq; Supp. Table 2) of islets from C2cd4b null or control animals confirmed the lowering of C2cd4b expression, and revealed a significant (~75%) increase in C2cd4a expression. No other mRNAs were significantly affected by C2cd4b deletion (Supp. Table 2).
Given the absence of clear insulin secretion defects in isolated C2cd4b null islets, and the expression of both C2cd4a and C2cd4b in the pituitary (see above), we next assessed whether deletion of this gene might affect the production of sex hormones and thus provoke gender-specific differences in glucose homeostasis. In order to remove a negative feedback loop through which hormones secreted from the gonads repress follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) release from the pituitary gland, animals were gonadectomised prior to these experiments. Compared to wild type littermates, female C2cd4b null mice displayed ~ 50 % lower circulating FSH levels (Fig.6, A,C). In contrast, no differences in LH or FSH levels were apparent between wild type and C2cd4b null male mice (Fig.6, B,D).
Male C2cd4b null mice display elevated body mass and fasting glycemia on a high-fat and -sucrose diet
Maintained on RC diet, male C2cd4b null mice gained weight at the same rate as wild type littermates while, in contrast to females, male mutant mice gained substantially more weight on HFD from 14 weeks of age versus wild type littermates (Fig.3, E) associated with raised fasting glycaemia (Fig.3,G). This increase in body weight was largely the result of augmented lean mass (Fig.3, H,I). Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance was normal in males maintained on a RC diet at all ages examined (Fig.4, B, Supp. Fig.5, B,D,F,H). Although unaltered in younger male mice after maintenance on HFD (Supp. Fig.6, B,D,F,G), glucose tolerance was impaired at 23 weeks by C2cd4b deletion (Fig.4, D,F). As observed in female C2cd4b null mice, β cell mass (Supp. Fig.7, E-H), HOMA2-%B (Supp. Fig.8, B,D) insulin sensitivity (Supp. Fig.9, B,D), glucose or KCl-stimulated insulin secretion from isolated islets (Supp. Fig.10, B,D) were unaltered in male C2cd4b null mice versus littermate controls.
C2cd4a null mice display no metabolic abnormalities
To determine whether C2cd4a inactivation might also impact glucose homeostasis, we next examined male or female C2cd4a null mice (Supp. Fig.13, A-C). In contrast to their C2cd4b null counterparts, C2cd4a null mice displayed no evident metabolic phenotype up to 22 weeks of age and neither weight gain, glucose homeostasis nor insulin secretion differed between wild type and null mice (Supp. Fig.13, D-I) for either sex. Likewise, measured in vitro, glucose or KCl (depolarisation)-stimulated insulin secretion were unaltered in isolated islets from female C2cd4a null mice (Supp. Fig.13, J).
C2CD4A but not C2CD4B C2 domains support Ca2+-dependent intracellular translocation
We next sought to explore the mechanism(s) through which C2CD4B or C2CD4A may influence β cell (and, potentially, pituitary gonadotroph) function. Both proteins have been suggested (11) to lack a functional C2 domain, consistent with a reported localisation in the nucleus in COS7 cells (10). In contrast to earlier findings reporting nuclear subcellular localisation, when overexpressed as GFP- or FLAG-tagged chimaeras in rodent (MIN6, INS1 (832/13)) or human (EndoCβH1) β cell lines, C2CD4A and C2CD4B were found at the plasma membrane, the cytosol and the nucleus (Supp. Fig.14, A-C and Supp. Fig.15, A,B). In the majority of the cells, C2CD4A and C2CD4B were localised to the cytoplasm and nucleus. Co-localisation with readily-identified intracellular sub-compartments including the secretory granule (insulin), trans-Golgi network (TGN46), endosome/lysosome (LAMP1) or ER (KDEL) was not apparent (Supp. Fig.16, A,B).
The above findings suggested that the C2 domain of either protein may bind to Ca2+ and contribute to localisation at, and/or shuttling between, subcellular compartments in living cells. To test this hypothesis, we explored phospholipid-dependent recruitment to the plasma membrane in INS1(832/13) β cells (28) expressing either a control construct, in which Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), bearing five C2 domains, was fused to GFP (29), or equivalent C2CD4A or -B constructs (N-terminal linkage). In response to an increase in intracellular free Ca2+ provoked by 50 μM extracellular Ca2+ and the calcium ionophore, ionomycin (50 ng/ml), Syt1-GFP translocated from intracellular (likely ER-bound) sites to the plasma membrane. This movement was readily visualized by simultaneous live cell wide-field and total internal reflection of fluorescence (TIRF) imaging (Fig.7, A,B,D). A similar, but smaller change in the localisation of C2CD4A-GFP in response to Ca2+ was also observed. In contrast, no response was detected for C2CD4B-GFP (Fig.7, C,E-G).
Identification of C2CD4A and C2CD4B binding partners by mass spectrometry
The above experiments demonstrated that C2CD4A, and possibly C2CD4B, may participate in Ca2+-dependent signal transduction. To gain further insight into possible mechanisms of action we performed an unbiased proteomic screen using immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry to identify potential binding partners. Normalising to the negative control, and ranking in order of protein abundance, we generated lists of possible interacting proteins for human C2CD4A, C2CD4B (Supp. Tables 3,4), or both (Table 1). MIN6 cells transfected with human C2CD4A or C2CD4B were used given the low transfection efficiency of human-derived EndoCβH1 cells (see Supplementary Methods). Interacting partners included proteins involved in Ca2+ binding (TOR2A and EFCAB5 (30) and (https://www.genecards.org/), NF-κB signalling (SQSTM1 and PDCD11) and protein trafficking (PCSK9, NEDD4, RAP1 and GAP2). Ptprn (IA-2) and Ptprn2 (phogrin/IA-2β/ICA512) bound to both C2CD4A and C2CD4B. These protein tyrosine phosphatase-like transmembrane proteins are granule-resident, and implicated in granule trafficking and exocytosis (31).
Discussion
The overall aim of this study was to examine the biological roles of C2cd4b and C2cd4a in vivo focussing on the pancreatic β cell and pituitary. These questions have been pursued using mouse and fish knockout models and relevant cell lines. In contrast to earlier findings (15), we observed that global C2cd4a deletion in the mouse exerted no effects on insulin secretion in vitro or in vivo. These findings are consistent with the considerably (10-fold) lower expression of C2cd4a than C2cd4b in mouse islets and derived β cell lines (Supp. Table 1) though we would emphasise that no attempt was made here to quantify protein (rather than mRNA) levels. The reasons for the differences between the present study and that of Kuo et al. (15) with respect to C2cd4a are presently unclear, although this may reflect differences in the targeting strategies used to generate the different mouse mutants or genetic background and general housing conditions. Nonetheless, given that our work involved global inactivation of this gene we cannot exclude the possibility that compensatory changes occur in other tissues, or in islet cell other than β cells, that mitigate the effects of deleting C2cd4a in the β cell. Of note, we observed no changes in the expression of “disallowed” genes including Ldha after C2cd4b deletion, nor in other glycolytic genes such as AldoA, as reported after over-expression of C2cd4a (15), suggesting non-redundant roles of C2cd4a and C2cd4b.
Deletion of C2cd4b leads to weight gain in males, but defective insulin secretion in female mice
Our findings reveal a strikingly sexually dimorphic phenotype of C2cd4b null mice, which is also strongly dependent upon diet. In contrast to females, male C2cd4b null mice displayed no evident metabolic abnormalities at any age when maintained on RC. Although mutant male mice exhibited a substantial increase in body weight on HFD, fasting glucose and glucose tolerance were impaired only in older (>20 weeks) animals. In stark contrast, female mutant mice displayed abnormal glucose tolerance from as early as 12 weeks on both RC and HFD (with a tendency towards abnormal glucose tolerance observed at 8 weeks), despite unaltered body weight. The changes in lean mass observed in C2cd4b null mice on HFD are reminiscent of findings from the IMPC (https://www.mousephenotype.org/data/genes/MGI:1922947) when this line was fed RC. Interestingly, these earlier, less in-depth studies, also reported gender-specific alterations in lipid, circulating cholesterol and triglyceride levels in male C2cd4b null mice, but failed to detect alterations in glucose tolerance. No metabolic phenotype was reported for C2cd4a mutants: (https://www.mousephenotype.org/data/genes/MGI:3645763). We note that a statistically significant (p=0.004) impact of the human T2D-associated variant rs7172432 (which is in perfect linkage disequilibrium with rs7163757: R2=1.0) (15) at the VPS13C/C2CD4A/C2CD4B locus on waist circumference has previously been reported (32), and may be related to the alterations in body weight we observed here in male C2cd4b knockout mice. However, the human studies were not stratified by sex.
What factors underlie these gender-dependent differences in insulin secretion between wild type and C2cd4b null mice? Our findings suggest that β cell-extrinsic mechanisms, possibly involving circulating factors, contribute to (or may be the drivers of) altered insulin secretion in the living animal. Potential contributors are changes in FSH levels (33,34) in female null C2cd4b mice, reflecting altered expression of the gene in the pituitary. Decreased FSH production is expected, in turn, to decrease circulating oestrogen levels. We note, however, that measurements of estrogen are complicated in fertile mice due to fluctuations in the estrous cycle. Positive actions of estrogen on β cell insulin content (via ERa) and secretion (via ERbeta) are well known (33,35), and may thus underlie the weaker insulin secretion in C2cd4b knockout mice. Consistent with a requirement for sexual maturity, no differences were apparent in β cell function between genotypes in the living fish embryo (Fig.2), at stages where differences in circulating sex hormones are not anticipated. Nevertheless, earlier studies in zebrafish larvae using oligonucleotide-mediated C2cd4ab gene knockdown (13) reported alterations in β cell mass.
Such sexual dimorphism on the impact of variants at this locus, however, has not been reported in human GWAS data (36,37). One possible explanation is that dimorphism in mice reflects well-known differences in the response of males and females to HFD (38). More likely, in our view, is that in rodent islets (and pituitary; see below) C2cd4b expression predominates over C2cd4a, while in humans, C2CD4A and C2CD4B expression are comparable. Consequently, in humans, changes in both C2CD4A and C2CD4B may mediate the effect of the GWAS signal for T2D, dampening a sexually dimorphic effect of changes in C2CD4B expression.
Might altered genetic risk for T2D in man result from changes in C2CD4A or -B expression in the brain? Importantly, high levels of expression of C2CD4A and -B in pituitary (GTEx data, The Human Protein Atlas, URL: https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000198535-C2CD4A/tissue, https://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000205502-C2CD4B/tissue) are consistent with this view. Correspondingly, an eQTL for C2CD4A is reported for rs7163757 in the pituitary (https://www.gtexportal.org/home/snp/rs7163757#sqtl-block) with a tendency towards decreased expression of C2CD4A, and more strongly VPS13C, in carriers of C (risk allele) vs T alleles.
Intracellular signalling by C2cd4a and C2cd4b
Our observation that neither C2CD4A nor C2CD4B are localised exclusively in the nucleus, as previously reported in COS7 cells (10), islets and MIN6 cells (15) was unexpected, but implies a more dynamic role for both C2CD4A, and possibly C2CD4B, in intracellular signalling. We note that the present studies explored the subcellular distribution of the H. sapiens protein, rather than the M. musculus homologue examined previously (15), providing a potential explanation for these differences. Interestingly, predictions from primary structure (11) indicate that neither C2CD4A nor C2CD4B (human or mouse) possesses a C2 domain with a bona fide Ca2+ binding site (39,40). Nevertheless, we provide a direct demonstration of Ca2+-dependent recruitment to the plasma membrane of C2CD4A (Fig.7) whereas C2CD4B would appear to exert its function independently of calcium binding.
What signalling mechanism(s) may lie downstream of C2CD4A (or C2CD4B) after recruitment to the plasma membrane? Of those proteins identified as interacting with both, Ptprn2 (also known as phogrin and IA-2β) is of particular interest, as it is known to play a role in the control of secretion from neuroendocrine cells (31). Thus, inactivation of Ptprn2/phogrin, a secretory granule-localised protein (41), leads to defective insulin secretion in mice (42,43). Importantly, double knockout of Ptprn2/phogrin and the closely-related Ptprn (IA-2) gene leads to defective FSH and LH production and female infertility (42), implying an important role in the anterior pituitary. An interaction between C2CD4A or C2CD4B and PTPRN2 in the pituitary (and possibly the β cell) may therefore contribute to the effects of altered expression on diabetes risk. Whether similar interactions are relevant elsewhere in the brain such as in feeding centres, and contribute to weight gain in male C2cd4b null mice, is unknown.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrates important and sexually dimorphic roles in disease-relevant tissues for murine C2CD4B, but not C2CD4A (Supp. Fig.17). These include contributions of the former gene to body weight control and insulin secretion (males) and to pituitary function and insulin secretion (females). Our data also highlight differences in the likely roles of these genes in humans versus other species.
Author contributions
SNMG, GAR, NN and MV designed the research. SNMG, IC, PC, AMS, GP, SJM, EG, MH, BO, MV, NF, MD, ZM, XL, FLCD and ET performed experiments. AMS, DW, TJP, NN, PG, DAJ, AM and HK contributed new reagents/analytical tools. IL provided project licence. SNMG and GAR drafted and/or wrote the manuscript. GAR and Diabetes UK provided funding. GAR supervised the work.
We thank Dr. Ines Cebola, Imperial College London, for her comments and revision of the manuscript. We also thank Dr. Stephen Rothery and the Imperial College FILM facility for training and use of the wide-field and confocal microscope. We also thank Hermine Muniangi Muhitu for quantification of mouse islet β cell mass and Xiaomeng Li for plasmid cloning.
Funding
G.A.R. was supported by a Wellcome Trust Senior Investigator (WT098424AIA) and Investigator (WT212625/Z/18/Z) Awards, MRC Programme grants (MR/R022259/1, MR/J0003042/1, MR/L020149/1, MR/R022259/1) and Experimental Challenge Grant (DIVA, MR/L02036X/1), MRC (MR/N00275X/1), Diabetes UK (BDA/11/0004210, BDA/15/0005275, BDA 16/0005485) and Imperial Confidence in Concept (ICiC) grants. “This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking under grant agreement No 115881 (RHAPSODY) to G.A.R. Work in the D.J.W laboratory was funded by the Medical Research Council (MC-A654-5QB40). S.J.M was supported by an Imperial College / Wellcome Trust ISSF Springboard Fellowship (PS3619_WREC).
Guarantor Statement
G.A.R. serves as the guarantor of this work
Conflict of interest statement
G.A.R. has received grant funding and consultancy fees from Sun Pharmaceuticals and Les Laboratoires Servier.
Prior Presentation information
This work has been presented at Diabetes UK Annual Conference Manchester (2017), Diabetes UK APC (2018), EASD Annual Conference Berlin (2018) conferences.
Abbreviations
- FSH
- follicle-stimulating hormone
- GFP
- green fluorescent protein
- GWAS
- genome-wide association study
- IMPC
- International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium
- LH
- luteinizing hormone
- KREBH
- Krebs-HEPES-bicarbonate buffer
- RC
- regular chow
- HFD
- high fat diet
- T2D
- Type 2 diabetes