A community-science approach identifies genetic variants associated with three color morphs in ball pythons (Python regius)

Abstract

Color morphs in ball pythons (Python regius) provide a unique and largely untapped resource for understanding the genetics of coloration in reptiles. Here we use a community-science approach to investigate the genetics of three color morphs affecting production of the pigment melanin. These morphs—Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel—show a loss of melanin in the skin and eyes, ranging from severe (Albino) to moderate (Lavender Albino) to mild (Ultramel). To identify genetic variants causing each morph, we recruited shed skins of pet ball pythons via social media, extracted DNA from the skins, and searched for putative loss-of-function variants in homologs of genes controlling melanin production in other vertebrates. We report that the Albino morph is associated with missense and non-coding variants in the gene TYR. The Lavender Albino morph is associated with a deletion in the gene OCA2. The Ultramel morph is associated with a missense variant and a putative deletion in the gene TYRP1. Our study is one of the first to identify genetic variants associated with color morphs in ball pythons and shows that pet samples recruited from the community can provide a resource for genetic studies in this species.

Introduction

Color patterns are distinctive and beautiful features of many animal species. Among the many functions of color are to camouflage animals to their surroundings, protect tissues from ultraviolet radiation, warn predators of poisons, and provide signals for mating and social communication [1]. Color patterns have also been targeted by artificial selection to create novel and fanciful color patterns in domestic animals [2].

Colors are produced through a combination of chemical pigments and physical structures (structural colors). Pigments absorb light, whereas structural colors are created when light is reflected by the nanoscale geometry of a tissue. Common pigments include brown-to-black melanin, present throughout the animal kingdom, and yellow-to-red carotenoids and pteridines, common in birds, reptiles, and lower vertebrates [3]. Color-producing structures include ordered keratin matrices in bird feathers [4], chitin layers in butterfly wings [5], and purine crystals in the skin of fish, amphibians, and reptiles [6,7]. These color-producing structures can produce a variety of colors, including iridescent colors, depending on the wavelengths of light they reflect [8].

The genetics and development of color patterns in vertebrates have been studied most extensively in mammals. Mammals largely rely on a single type of pigment (melanin), produced in the skin by a single type of cell (melanocyte) [9]. This system provides mammals with skin and hair colors ranging from black to reddish-brown, depending on the chemical structure of the melanin [10].

Skin colors outside mammals are more diverse and include bright colors of all hues. This increased complexity is produced through a combination of structural colors and melanin and non-melanin pigment, and it relies on multiple types of specialized color-producing cells in the skin [11–15]. Color cell development has been characterized to some extent in fish [16–18], and genes controlling the use of non-melanin pigments have been identified in a few species of fish and birds [19–25]. The genetics and development of non-mammalian color patterns is less well understood in other vertebrates, particularly in reptiles [although see 26–29].

A unique resource for understanding the genetics of color patterns in reptiles is the ball python (P. regius). Ball pythons are native to sub-Saharan Africa, but have become common as pets in the United States [30]. Wild ball pythons exhibit a mottled color pattern, consisting of brown-to-black melanin and red-to-yellow (non-melanin) pigments in the skin (Fig 1). Captive-bred ball pythons, by contrast, include many variants of the normal color pattern [26,31–33]. These variants, referred to as ‘color morphs’, include animals having reduced melanin (e.g. Albino), increased melanin (e.g. Cinnamon), reduced red-to-yellow coloration (e.g. Axanthic), or complex changes in the placement of color patches on the skin (e.g. Spider, Clown, Genetic Stripe, and Enchi). Many color morphs are heritable and show simple dominant or recessive patterns of inheritance. These inheritance patterns are consistent with single-gene causality, but only a single genetic variant associated with a ball python color morph (Piebald) has been identified to date [26]. Ball pythons therefore represent a tractable yet largely untapped resource for understanding the genetics of coloration in reptiles. An additional feature of ball pythons convenient for genetic studies is that DNA samples can be obtained non-invasively from shed skin [34].

Fig 1. The Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel color morphs have reduced brown-to-black coloration, characteristic of a loss of melanin.

Red-to-yellow coloration is unaffected in these morphs. Hypothesized causative genes represent genes in which loss-of-function variants in other vertebrates produce similar phenotypes (Table 1). (A) Wildtype. (B) Ultramel. (C) Lavender Albino. (D-F) Albino. (D) Albino animal described as an Alb^Albino homozygote. (E) Albino animal described as an Alb^Candy homozygote. (F) Albino animal described as an Alb^Toffee homozygote. Photo credits, Ryan Young of Molecular Reptile, Chiron Graves, Phil Barclay, Michael Freedman of The Florida Reptile Ranch.

The goal of the current study was to perform proof-of-concept experiments to identify the genetic causes of color morphs in ball pythons, using shed skins of pet ball pythons recruited via social media. We focused on three morphs for which candidate genes could be readily identified: Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel. These morphs show a loss of brown-to-black coloration in the skin and eyes, characteristic of a defect in melanin production (Fig 1). These morphs are recessive and non-allelic (i.e. crosses between these morphs yield offspring with normal coloration). Their loss of melanin ranges from severe (Albino) to moderate (Lavender Albino) to mild (Ultramel). This range of phenotypes mirrors the range of phenotypes observed for loss-of-function variants in genes required for melanin production in other vertebrates (Table 1). This similarity provided a list of candidate genes that we predicted might harbor loss-of-function variants causing the Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel color morphs in ball pythons. Our study demonstrates the feasibility of using community-sourced samples for genetic studies in ball pythons and lays the groundwork for future investigations of reptile-specific color patterns in this species.

Table 1. Loss-of-function phenotypes of melanogenesis genes across vertebrates.

Results

Obtaining a reference sequence for melanogenesis genes in a wildtype ball python

Genes required for melanin production have been identified in humans and other vertebrates (Table 1). These genes encode enzymes that synthesize melanin (TYR, TYRP1, TYRP2) [86], a chloride channel required for maintaining the pH of melanosomes (OCA2) [87], and transporters thought to import solutes into the cell or into organelles (SLC7A11, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2) [76,88,89]. These genes are highly conserved among vertebrates and occur in single copy in most vertebrate genomes. Loss-of-function variants in these genes in humans cause a genetic disorder known as oculocutaneous albinism, which is characterized by loss of melanin in the skin, hair, and eyes [52]. This loss of melanin ranges from severe to mild, depending on the causative gene and exact genetics variants therein [52]. Similar phenotypes occur in other animals, where the loss of melanin extends to feathers and scales (Table 1).

To obtain a reference sequence for melanogenesis genes in ball python, we amplified and sequenced the coding regions of TYR, TYRP1, TYRP2, OCA2, SLC7A11, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2 from a single ball python having normal coloration (henceforth ‘wildtype’). Primers for amplification were designed against the genome of Burmese python (Python bivittatus), the closest relative of ball python for which genome sequence was available [90]. Comparison of ball python sequences to sequences from Burmese python revealed 97.2-99.2% nucleotide identity within coding regions and 96.9-98.5% nucleotide identity within flanking non-coding regions (Table 2). This analysis provided a reference sequence for genes in ball python that might harbor loss-of-function variants causing the Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel color morphs.

Table 2. Comparison of ball python and Burmese python genomic and protein sequences for melanogenesis genes.

The Albino color morph is associated with three haplotypes of TYR

The Albino color morph in ball pythons is characterized by an absence or near absence of melanin in the skin and eyes. This phenotype resembles the phenotype caused by loss of function of TYR in other vertebrates. TYR encodes the enzyme catalyzing the rate-limiting step of melanin production [86]. Loss of this enzymatic activity in other vertebrates causes a severe loss of melanin, which is typically more severe than the loss of melanin caused by loss of function of other melanogenesis genes (Table 1). We therefore hypothesized that the Albino color morph in ball pythons was caused by loss-of-function variants in TYR.

To test whether the Albino color morph was associated with variants in TYR, we performed a small-scale association study using 50 Albinos and 56 Non-Albinos, recruited from a total of 18 states in the United States. Polymorphic sites were identified through pilot sequencing of a subset of animals (see Methods). Six polymorphic sites were selected for the association study, two near the 5’ end of TYR and four near the 3’ end (Fig 2A). Each animal was genotyped at each site, and haplotypes were reconstructed using PHASE [91,92]. Association between haplotype and color morph was tested using the case-control test of PHASE. As a negative control, we also tested for association between haplotype and color morph at TYRP1, TYRP2, and OCA2, using two polymorphic sites per gene (S1 Table). This analysis revealed a significant association between haplotype and color morph at TYR (p = 0.04, Bonferroni corrected), but no association for the other three genes (p > 0.05, Bonferroni corrected). The association for TYR was driven by two features of the haplotype distribution: (i) diversity of TYR haplotypes was reduced among Albinos compared to Non-Albinos (Fig 2A), and (ii) two of the three TYR haplotypes found in Albinos were rare among Non-Albinos (Fig 2A). These results demonstrate an association between the Albino color morph and variants in TYR; they further show that all Albino animals were homozygous or compound heterozygous for any of three haplotypes of TYR.

Fig 2. The Albino color morph is associated with three haplotypes of TYR.

(A) TYR haplotype frequencies among Albinos and Non-Albinos. (B) Alignment of TYR protein sequences surrounding the missense variants D394G and P384L. (C) TYR genotypes and breeder designations of animals used in the association study. +, any TYR haplotype found exclusively among Non-Albinos. (D) PCR amplification of a genomic fragment containing the variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) shown in E. Non-Albinos are examples of Non-Albinos homozygous for the longer allele of the VNTR. (E) Schematic of the three TYR haplotypes found in Albinos. The TYR^Albino haplotype contains no coding variants and no splice-site variants compared to wildtype. (A, E) Hash mark, discontinuity in the Burmese python reference genome.

We hypothesized that each of the three haplotypes of TYR found among Albinos might carry a distinct loss-of-function variant in the gene. To search for such variants, we selected one Albino animal homozygous for each haplotype and sequenced the TYR coding regions and adjacent splice sites in these animals. We found that one of these animals was homozygous for an aspartic acid-to-glycine variant (D394G) in the third coding region of TYR. A second animal was homozygous for a proline-to-leucine variant (P384L), also in the third coding region of TYR. Both variants alter conserved residues (Fig 2B), and the P384L variant occurs at the same site as a similar variant (P384A) associated with oculocutaneous albinism in humans [93]. The third animal carried no coding variants and no splice-site variants compared to wildtype. These results show that two of the three TYR haplotypes found among Albinos carried missense variants that are likely disruptive for TYR protein function. We term these TYR haplotypes TYR^D394G and TYR^P384L. We term the third Albino haplotype, which lacked coding or splice-site variants compared to wildtype, TYR^Albino.

We hypothesized that D394G, P384L, and an unidentified variant on the TYR^Albino haplotype were causative for the Albino color morph. This hypothesis predicts that animals homozygous or compound heterozygous for these variants will be Albino. Heterozygotes and non-carriers are predicted to be Non-Albino. To test this prediction, we genotyped our full panel of 50 Albinos and 56 Non-Albinos for the missense variants D394G and P384L. Consistent with our prediction, we found that animals homozygous or compound heterozygous for D394G, P384L, or the TYR^Albino haplotype were exclusively Albino (Fig 2C). Heterozygotes and non-carriers were exclusively Non-Albino (Fig 2C). The most common haplotype among Albinos was TYR^Albino (haplotype frequency of 71%), followed by TYR^P384L (16%) and TYR^D394G (13%). We conclude that D394G, P384L, and an unidentified variant on the TYR^Albino haplotype are likely causative for the Albino color morph. Any combination of these variants produces the Albino phenotype.

The TYR^Albino haplotype lacks an obvious loss-of-function variant

The lack of coding or splice-site variants on the TYR^Albino haplotype led us to hypothesize that this haplotype carried a loss-of-function variant in a non-coding region. To search for such variants, we examined the TYR promoter. We sequenced ∼2 kb immediately upstream of the TYR start codon in a TYR^Albino homozygote and compared this sequence to wildtype. We found that the TYR^Albino haplotype differed from wildtype at a total three sites (three single-base substitutions). In all three cases, the TYR^Albino haplotype was homozygous for the allele shared with Burmese python (i.e. the ancestral allele). This result suggests that these variants are not causative for the Albino color morph. We conclude that the causative variant in the TYR^Albino haplotype does not reside within the sequenced region, ∼2 kb upstream of the TYR start codon.

We hypothesized that the TYR^Albino haplotype might contain a large insertion or deletion (indel) in an intron that disrupts gene function. Intronic indels can disrupt slicing and have been found to disrupt the function of melanogenesis genes in other species [e.g. 62,73]. To search for large intronic indels, we tiled PCR amplicons across TYR introns and compared amplicon sizes between a TYR^Albino homozygote and a wildtype animal. These amplicons tiled across a total of ∼38 kb of intronic sequence, which included part of intron 1 and all of introns 2, 3, and 4 (Fig 2E). (Tiling across intron 1 was incomplete because this intron contains a discontinuity in the Burmese python reference genome. Amplification across this discontinuity was unsuccessful in ball python, even in wildtype.) Size differences between the TYR^Albino homozygote and wildtype were assessed via standard agarose gel electrophoresis, which we estimate was sensitive enough to reveal indels larger than ∼50-100 bp, depending on amplicon size (which ranged from ∼0.7-3.5 kb). This analysis revealed one size difference (Fig 2D). Further sequencing revealed that this size difference was caused by a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) that was ∼400 bp larger in the TYR^Albino homozygote than in wildtype. Genotyping of the 56 Non-Albinos for this indel revealed that eight of these animals were homozygous for the larger allele of the VNTR (Fig 2D). This finding suggests that the larger allele of the VNTR is not causative for the Albino color morph. We propose that the TYR^Albino haplotype harbors a loss-of-function variant other than a large intronic indel or outside the genomic regions analyzed here.

TYR^P384L is associated with reduced phenotype severity compared to TYR^D394G and TYR^Albino

Ball python breeders describe the Albino color morph as having three alleles: Alb^Albino, Alb^Candy, and Alb^Toffee. Evidence for this view comes in part from variation in the coloration of Albino animals. In some Albino animals, the brown-to-black coloration observed in wildtype is entirely absent, and skin patches appear white (Fig 1D). These Albinos are typically considered to be Alb^Albino homozygotes. Other Albinos show a less severe phenotype, where skin patches are faintly beige or lavender instead of white (Figs 1E and 1F). These Albinos are typically considered to carry one or more copies of Alb^Candy or Alb^Toffee.

We hypothesized that the Albino alleles recognized by breeders might correspond to the TYR haplotypes identified through sequencing (TYR^D394G, TYR^P384L, and TYR^Albino). To test this hypothesis, we examined the breeder designations of the 50 Albinos in our panel. We found that the Alb^Candy or Alb^Toffee designations typically corresponded the TYR^P384L haplotype (Fig 2C). The Alb^Albino designation typically corresponded to the other two haplotypes (TYR^D394G and TYR^Albino, Fig 2C). This correspondence was imperfect, and exceptions existed (e.g. three animals designated as Alb^Albino / Alb^Candy compound heterozygotes did not carry the TYR^P384L haplotype, Fig 2C). We conclude that the Alb^Candy and Alb^Toffee designations typically (but not exclusively) represent the TYR^P384L haplotype. The Alb^Albino designation typically (but not exclusively) represents the TYR^D394G or TYR^Albino haplotype. The association between the Alb^Candy and Alb^Toffee designations and the TYR^P384L haplotype suggests that this haplotype may confer a slightly less severe phenotype than do TYR^D394G and TYR^Albino.

The Lavender Albino color morph is associated with a deletion in OCA2

The Lavender Albino color morph is characterized by skin patches that are lavender instead of brown or black. This phenotype is thought to arise from melanin levels that are dramatically reduced but not entirely eliminated. Similar phenotypes have been observed in other vertebrates upon loss of function of OCA2 (Table 1). OCA2 encodes a chloride channel required for maintaining the pH of melanosomes [87,94]. When the OCA2 protein is absent or non-functional, the enzymes that synthesize melanin are less active, and only small amounts of melanin are produced [95,96]. The resulting phenotype is typically less severe than the loss-of-function phenotype of TYR, but more severe than the loss-of-function phenotypes of other melanogenesis genes (Table 1). We therefore hypothesized that the Lavender Albino color morph was caused by loss-of-function variants in OCA2.

To search for loss-of-function variants in OCA2, we selected a single Lavender Albino animal and sequenced 23 of the 24 coding regions of OCA2 in this animal. Comparison of these sequences to wildtype revealed no coding variants and no splice-site variants. We attempted to repeat this analysis for the remaining coding region (coding region 18), but we were unable to amplify this coding region from the Lavender Albino animal. Further test amplifications revealed that the Lavender Albino animal was homozygous for a 1,514-bp deletion spanning coding region 18 (Figs 3A and 3B). This deletion removes 36 amino acids from the protein and likely introduces a frameshift into the transcript, given that the coding regions downstream of the deletion are out of frame compared to coding regions upstream of the deletion (Fig 3E). This frameshifted transcript is predicted to produce a protein lacking six of the 12 transmembrane helices present in wildtype OCA2. Truncations occurring at similar positions in the OCA2 protein have been identified in humans and are associated with oculocutaneous albinism [97]. We conclude that the deletion of OCA2 coding region 18 likely disrupts protein function and is a strong candidate for the cause of the Lavender Albino color morph.

Fig 3. The Lavender Albino color morph is associated with a deletion in OCA2.

(A) Schematic of the OCA2 gene. (B) PCR amplification demonstrating the deletion in Lavender Albino. (C) PCR amplification used for genotyping the deletion in the animals in panel D. (D) Genotypes of 14 Lavender Albinos, 76 Non-Lavender Albinos, and one animal described as heterozygous for Lavender Albino. This set of animals includes the original Lavender Albino animal in which the OCA2 deletion was identified. (E) Schematic of the OCA2 haplotype found in Lavender Albinos. (A, E) Hash mark, discontinuity in the Burmese python reference genome.

The Lavender Albino color morph is considered by breeders to have a single allele. We therefore predicted that the OCA2 deletion would be shared by other Lavender Albino animals. We predicted that Non-Lavender Albinos would be heterozygous for the deletion or non-carriers. To test this prediction, we genotyped the OCA2 deletion in 13 additional Lavender Albino animals. We also genotyped 76 Non-Lavender Albinos and one animal described as heterozygous for the Lavender Albino color morph. We found that all 13 Lavender Albinos were homozygous for the deletion (Figs 3C and 3D). All 76 Non-Lavender Albinos were non-carriers. The animal reported to be heterozygous for Lavender Albino was heterozygous for the deletion. These findings support the conclusion that the OCA2 deletion is causative for the Lavender Albino color morph (Fig 3E).

The Ultramel color morph is associated with a missense variant and a putative deletion in TYRP1

The Ultramel color morph is characterized by skin patches that are tan or light brown, rather than dark brown or black. This phenotype suggests a mild loss of melanin. Similar phenotypes in other vertebrates have been observed upon loss of function of any five genes: TYRP1, TYRP2, SLC7A11, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2 (Table 1). TYRP1 and TYRP2 encode enzymes involved in synthesizing melanin [86]. Their enzymatic activities are partially reductant with other enzymes in the melanin synthesis pathway, thus explaining their milder loss-of-function phenotypes compared to TYR. SLC7A11 encodes a transporter responsible for importing cystine into the cell [98]. Cystine is a precursor to some forms of melanin, and hence absence of the transporter alters melanin levels [76]. SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 encode a K⁺-dependent Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger [88] and a putative sugar transporter [89], respectively. Loss of either of these proteins causes a reduction in melanin, through mechanisms that may involve defects in regulation of melanosome pH [83,88,99]. We hypothesized that the Ultramel color morph was caused by loss-of-function variants in one of these genes.

To search for loss-of-function variants in TYRP1, TYRP2, SLC7A11, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2, we selected a single Ultramel animal and sequenced the coding regions of each of these genes in this animal. Comparison of these sequences to wildtype revealed a single coding variant: an arginine-to-histidine substitution (R305H) in coding region 4 of TYRP1. The Ultramel animal was homozygous for this variant. The arginine residue at this site is conserved across vertebrates (Fig 4A) and is also conserved in TYR, which is paralogous to TYRP1 [100]. An arginine-to-histidine substitution at the homologous site in TYR has been reported in humans and is associated with oculocutaneous albinism [101–103], suggesting that a histidine at this site is disruptive to protein function. The R305H variant is therefore a good candidate for the cause of the Ultramel color morph.

Fig 4. The Ultramel color morph is associated with a missense variant and a putative deletion in TYRP1.

(A) Alignment of TYRP1 protein sequence surrounding missense variant R305H. (B) Genotypes of 11 Ultramels and 78 Non-Ultramels. This set of animals includes the original Ultramel animal in which the R305H variant was identified. Ultramels heterozygous for R305H are presumed to be heterozygous for the putative deletion of coding regions 6 and 7; testing these animals for the putative deletion was not possible because the putative deletion cannot be detected in the heterozygous state. (C) Top, schematic of the TYRP1 gene. Bottom left, PCR amplifications demonstrating the putative deletion in the Ultramels lacking R305H. Bottom right, alignment of PCR amplicons to the TYRP1 gene. (D) Schematic of the two TYRP1 haplotypes found in Ultramels. (A, D) Hash mark, discontinuity in the Burmese python reference genome.

The Ultramel color morph is considered by breeders to have a single allele. We therefore predicted that the R305H variant would be shared by other Ultramels. We predicted that Non-Ultramels would be heterozygous or non-carriers. To test this prediction, we genotyped the R305H variant in 10 additional Ultramels and 78 Non-Ultramels. We found that five of the 10 Ultramels were homozygous for the R305H variant (Fig 4B). Of the remaining Ultramels, two were heterozygous for the R305H variant, and three did not carry it. By contrast, none of the 78 Non-Ultramels carried the R305H variant. This pattern is consistent with the R305H variant causing the Ultramel phenotype in some Ultramels but not others.

We hypothesized that the R305H variant represents one of two loss-of-function alleles of TYRP1. Under this scenario, Ultramels lacking the R305H variant are predicted to be homozygous for an alternate loss-of-function allele. Ultramels heterozygous for R305H are predicted to be compound heterozygotes. To test this prediction, we amplified and sequenced coding regions 1 through 5 of TYRP1 in one of the three Ultramels lacking the R305H variant. We found no coding variants and no splice-site variants compared to wildtype. We attempted to repeat this analysis for coding regions 6 and 7 of TYRP1, but we were unable to amplify these coding regions from this animal (Fig 4C). Identical results were observed for the other two Ultramels lacking the R305H variant (S5 Table). Further test amplifications indicated that coding regions 6 and 7 were missing from the genomes of all three animals (Fig 4C, S5 Table). Loss of these coding regions was specific to Ultramels lacking the R305H variant and did not occur in any of the Ultramels carrying the R305H variant, nor in any of the 78 Non-Ultramels (Fig 4B). A simple explanation of this pattern is that the Ultramels lacking the R305H variant were homozygous for a deletion spanning coding regions 6 and 7 of TYRP1. This putative deletion removes at least 2,208 bp from the genome and 117 amino acids from the TYRP1 protein, including the second of two zinc-binding domains. (The exact size and breakpoints of the putative deletion remain undetermined because the deletion extends into a discontinuity in the Burmese python reference genome.) Truncations occurring at similar positions in the TYRP1 protein have been identified in humans and are associated with oculocutaneous albinism [104]. We conclude that the Ultramel color morph is likely caused by variants in TYRP1 and has two alleles: missense variant R305H and a putative deletion of coding regions 6 and 7 (Fig 4D).

Discussion

The goal of our study was to use pet samples recruited from the community to identify the genetic causes of the Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel color morphs. We succeeded in recruiting 11 or more animals for each morph, along with a larger number of animals not belonging to these morphs. This sample size, albeit small, was sufficient to identify putatively causal variants for each morph (Fig 5). The Albino color morph was associated with three alleles of TYR: missense variant D394G, missense variant P384L, and haplotype TYR^Albino, which lacks coding or splice-site variants compared to wildtype. The Lavender Albino color morph was associated with a single allele of OCA2, a 1,514-bp deletion that removes OCA2 coding region 18. The Ultramel color morph was associated with two alleles of TYRP1: missense variant R305H and a putative deletion that removes TYRP1 coding regions 6 and 7. Due to the small sample size of our study, we cannot exclude the possibility of additional loss-of-function alleles of these genes. However, such alleles are expected to be at low frequency in the ball python population, given their absence from our sample. These findings are consistent with genetic data from other vertebrates (Table 1), indicating that the loss-of-function phenotypes of these genes range from severe (TYR) to moderate (OCA2) to mild (TYPR1). Our study demonstrates that pet ball pythons are a tractable resource for genetic analysis of coloration in reptiles, at least for color morphs having obvious candidate genes.

Fig 5. Summary of genetic variants associated with the Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel color morphs.

Photo credits, Ryan Young of Molecular Reptile, Chiron Graves, Phil Barclay, Michael Freedman of The Florida Reptile Ranch.

Molecular functions of genetic variants associated with color morphs

The missense variants and deletions found in TYR, TYRP1, and OCA2 are likely hypomorphic or null alleles. The deletion in OCA2 likely results in a frameshifted transcript that, if not degraded by nonsense-mediated decay, encodes a protein lacking six of OCA2’s 12 transmembrane helices [94]. This truncated protein is therefore unlikely to retain the Cl^- channel activity observed for wildtype OCA2 [87]. TYR and TYPR1 encode globular enzymes that require copper or zinc as co-factors [86]. Variants P384L and D394G in TYR reside in the second of TYR’s two copper-binding domains and may therefore alter the ability of the TYR to bind copper. Variant R305H in TYRP1 occurs at a site that normally forms salt bridges with residues located elsewhere in the peptide chain [86]. An arginine-to-histidine substitution at this site likely disrupts these salt bridges and may therefore interfere with proper protein folding. The putative deletion in TYRP1 removes the C-terminal ∼20% of the protein. This deleted region includes the second of TYRP1’s two zinc-binding domains and several alpha helices residing to the enzyme’s hydrophobic core [86]. Truncated TYRP1 protein is therefore unlikely to fold properly, nor is it likely to properly associate with zinc.

The TYR^Albino haplotype is the most common TYR haplotype found among Albinos, but it lacks an obvious loss-of-function variant. This haplotype contains no coding variants, no splice-site variants, no derived variants within 2 kb upstream of the start codon, and no large indels in three of four introns (with the exception of a longer allele of a VNTR, which is not specific to the TYR^Albino haplotype). We propose that the TYR^Albino haplotype contains a loss-of-function variant not detectable by methods used in the current study. Examples include regulatory variants farther upstream of the start codon, substitutions in introns that disrupt slicing, or large indels or rearrangements involving the first intron. Cryptic loss-of-function variants in melanogenesis genes are thought to be relatively common in humans, where ∼10-20% of oculocutaneous albinism patients are heterozygous for pathogenic variants in a known melanogenesis gene but lack a coding or splice-site variant on the opposite allele [105–107].

Multiple alleles of the Albino color morph

Prior to the current study, the Albino color morph was recognized by breeders as having three alleles: Alb^Albino, Alb^Candy, and Alb^Toffee. Alb^Albino was thought to confer a more severe phenotype than Alb^Candy and Alb^Toffee (Figs 1D-F). Our results confirm that the Albino color morph has three molecular alleles (TYR^D394G, TYR^P384L, and TYR^Albino), but these alleles do not correspond to the alleles recognized by breeders. The molecular allele TYR^P384L typically corresponds to the breeder designations Alb^Candy and Alb^Toffee, whereas the molecular alleles TYR^D394G and TYR^Albino typically correspond to the breeder designation Alb^Albino (Fig 2C). This correspondence is imperfect and exceptions exist (Fig 2C).

We speculate that the TYR^P384L haplotype was discovered twice and was named Alb^Candy by one breeder and Alb^Toffee by another breeder. We speculate that TYR^D394G and TYR^Albino confer similar phenotypes and were not previously recognized by breeders as distinct. The less severe phenotype associated with TYR^P384L may reflect the P384L variant being less disruptive to gene function compared with variants on the other two alleles. Alternatively, the less severe phenotype associated with TYR^P384L may reflect genetic linkage to modifiers in other genes. In either case, our study demonstrates that the Albino allele designations current in use by breeders are not an accurate reflection of molecular genotype. Renaming of the Albino alleles is warranted, although owners and breeders may be resistant to renaming due to cultural attachment to existing allele names.

Multiple alleles of the Ultramel color morph

Our finding of multiple TYRP1 alleles for the Ultramel color morph was unexpected. This morph was not previously described as having multiple alleles. We speculate that one of the two alleles associated with the Ultramel color morph may represent an allele originally associated with a morph known as Caramel Albino. Multiple lineages of Caramel Albinos have been described, and their coloration similar to Ultramels. Caramel Albinos have been disfavored among owners and breeders because of spinal kinking and reduced female fertility. Caramel Albinos were not included in our study because we were unable to recruit any Caramel Albino samples. We speculate that the Caramel Albino morph may be allelic with Ultramel, and that one of two TYRP1 alleles associated with Ultramel may represent an allele originally described as Caramel Albino. Alternately, Ultramel may be distinct from Caramel Albino, and the two TYRP1 alleles may represent two distinct origins of the Ultramel morph.

Prospects for genetic testing

Many breeders of ball pythons wish to identify heterozygotes of recessive color morphs. Currently the only tool for identifying heterozygotes is test breeding, which is slow and laborious. The results of the current study will enable simple genetic testing for Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel, which will allow heterozygotes to be identified prior to reproductive maturity. Testing for Lavender Albino can be performed by genotyping the OCA2 deletion. Testing for Albino can be performed by sequencing the TYR missense variants D394G and P384L, and by genotyping variants that distinguish the TYR^Albino haplotype from other TYR haplotypes. Detection of D394G or P384L can be considered diagnostic for Albino because these variants are likely causative for the Albino color morph. Detection of the TYR^Albino haplotype is less diagnostic because the causative variant on TYR^Albino haplotype remains unknown. Testing for one of the two Ultramel alleles can be performed by sequencing the TYRP1 missense variant R305H. The other Ultramel allele—the putative deletion of TYRP1 coding regions 6 and 7—cannot currently be detected in heterozygotes using simple methods because the breakpoints of this putative deletion are unknown.

Use of Burmese python reference genome

One challenge for genetic studies in ball python is the absence of a reference genome. To fill this gap, we relied on the genome of Burmese python [90], which is a scaffold-level assembly. Contigs in this assembly are small, and genes are sometimes fragmented across scaffolds. This fragmentation limited our analysis of the TYR^Albino haplotype and the putative deletion in TYRP1. For TYR^Albino, we were unable to assess whether the TYR^Albino haplotype contained a large indel or rearrangement in the first intron of TYR, due to a discontinuity in the Burmese python genome in this region. For the putative deletion in TYRP1, we were unable to map the exact breakpoints of the deletion, due to a discontinuity in the Burmese python genome immediately downstream of TYRP1. As genomic resources for Burmese python and ball python expand, we expect to identify a putatively causative variant on the TYR^Albino haplotype and to map the breakpoints of the putative deletion in TYRP1. This information will increase the prospects for genetic testing for these alleles.

Ball pythons as a genetic system

The market for pet ball pythons is huge, and many owners prefer animals with novel color patterns. This demand has led breeders to propagate genetic variants affecting coloration [31,33]. This effort has fortuitously created a collection of “mutants” useful for understanding the genetics of coloration in reptiles. Examples include ball python morphs with altered red-to-yellow coloration (e.g. Axanthic) and morphs in which the normal mottled color pattern is converted to dorsal strips (e.g. Clown, Genetic Stripe, Super Stripe). Red-to-yellow pigments are largely uncharacterized in reptiles [although see 28,29], and morphs affecting these pigments may provide insight into the metabolism and storage of these pigments. Morphs with stripes are reminiscent of evolutionary changes in color patterning across snake species [108] and may provide insights into the developmental mechanisms by which these changes evolve. Future studies of ball python color morphs will be aided by our groundwork showing that ball python samples can be recruited effectively from pet owners, and that genetic analyses in ball python can be scaffolded using the genome of Burmese python as a reference. Similar groundwork has also been provided by a recent study characterizing the ball python morph known as Piebald [26]. We expect that a continued community-science approach will be effective in developing ball pythons into a resource for understanding the genetics of reptile coloration.

Materials and methods

Recruitment of ball python sheds

Ball python sheds were recruited from pet owners and breeders by placing announcements in Twitter, Reddit, Instagram, and Facebook, and by contacting sellers having active listings on Morph Market (www.morphmarket.com). Contributors were instructed to allow sheds to dry (if wet) and to ship sheds via standard first-class mail. Contributors sending multiple sheds were instructed to package sheds individually in plastic bags during shipping. Contributors were not provided monetary compensation for sheds, although some contributors were given pre-paid shipping envelopes to cover shipping costs. Contributors were thanked via social media whenever possible. Upon receipt, sheds were stored at -20°C to kill any insect larvae infesting the sheds.

To maximize genetic diversity within each category of morph, we limited our sample of animals of any one morph to animals contributed by different contributors. Exceptions were made if animals contributed by the same contributor had been obtained from different breeders. The goal of this strategy was to reduce the number of animals that were close relatives (e.g. siblings or parent-offspring pairs). Obtaining full pedigree information was not possible because most owners lacked this information (e.g. “I bought my animal at a pet store” or “I got my animal from a friend who was moving away”). Our discovery of multiple alleles for the Albino and Ultramel color morphs supports the idea that animals in our sample were derived from multiple lineages. However, we cannot exclude the possibility that some animals in our sample may have been close relatives.

The total set of animals comprised 50 Albinos, 14 Lavender Albinos, 11 Ultramels, one animal described as heterozygous for Lavender Albino, and 46 animals described as having normal coloration (i.e. wildtype) or belonging to color morphs other than Albino, Lavender Albino, or Ultramel. Phenotypes of Albinos, Lavender Albinos, and Ultramels were confirmed by examining shed skins for a reduction of brown-to-black coloration. The single animal described as heterozygous for Lavender Albino was included to demonstrate the three-primer assay for genotyping the OCA2 deletion. Heterozygotes for Albino or Ultramel and additional heterozygous for Lavender Albino were excluded from our study because we have found that animals described as heterozygous for recessive traits by breeders and owners are sometimes not heterozygous for these traits (e.g. due to mis-attribution of paternity).

Performing experiments in an undergraduate laboratory course

The majority of experiments and analyses described in this study were performed by undergraduate students as part of a laboratory course at Eastern Michigan University (BIO306W). This practice required that our experimental design rely on simple techniques, namely PCR and Sanger sequencing. To avoid student errors in these techniques, we implemented the following precautions. First, students never extracted DNA from more than one animal within the same laboratory period. Second, students performed negative and positive control reactions for all PCR amplifications. Data from students having incorrect controls were excluded from analysis. Third, all sequence analyses were performed independently by three or more students. When the results of all students did not all agree, sequences were re-analyzed by the instructor (HSS).

Annotation of melanogenesis genes in Burmese python

Our analyses in ball python used the genome of Burmese python as a reference. We therefore required high-confidence gene annotations in Burmese python for the genes used in our study (TYR, TYRP1, TYRP2, OCA2, SLC7A11, SLC24A5, and SLC45A2). Preliminary inspection of existing gene annotations in Burmese python suggested that many gene annotations contained errors. A main cause of these errors was that the Burmese python genome (Python_molurus_bivittatus-5.0.2) is a scaffold-level assembly; many genes were split across scaffolds. We therefore curated new gene annotations in Burmese python, using conservation of gene structure across species. Alignment of protein sequences for each gene from corn snake, anole lizard, chicken, and/or mouse revealed that gene structure was highly conserved for all seven genes: Genes in each species contained the same number of coding regions, and the coding-region boundaries relative to protein sequences were perfectly conserved across species, with the exception of one slight difference in mouse for one boundary of SLC45A2 (S2 Table). We therefore felt confident that conservation of coding-region boundaries could be used to curate new gene annotations in Burmese python. While it remains theoretically possible that our new gene annotations contain minor errors, our confidence in these gene annotations is high, given the high conservation of gene structure across species.

To curate new gene annotations, we performed TBLASTN searches of the Burmese python genome (Python_molurus_bivittatus-5.0.2) using protein sequences from anole lizard or corn snake as the query. Hits were examined manually. Gene annotations were built to match the coding-region boundaries conserved across species. Details for each gene annotation are given below.

TYR

The Burmese python genome was queried using TYR protein sequence from anole lizard (XP_003219419.1). The N-terminus of this query (coding region 1) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007438960.1 on scaffold 4418. The C-terminus of this query (coding regions 2 to 5) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007436041.2 on scaffold 3103. TYR was annotated as the union of these transcripts. The 3’ boundary of coding region 1 was adjusted to match the boundary conserved across species (…TTC TCT TCA TGG CAA-3’).

TYRP1

The Burmese python genome was queried using TYRP1 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034266320.1). The N-terminus of this query (coding regions 1 to 5) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007426971.3 on scaffold 801. The C-terminus of this query (coding regions 6 and 7) hit unannotated regions on this same scaffold. TYRP1 was annotated as the union of transcript XM_007426971.3 and coding regions 6 and 7. The boundaries of coding regions 6 and 7 were built to match the boundaries conserved across species (coding region 6, 5’-ATA TCT CAA CAT ACC….AAG TTC AGT GGC CAT-3’; coding region 7, 5’-CAC AAG CTC TCC ATG CAG TCA GAT GTG TGA-3’).

TYRP2

The Burmese python genome was queried using TYRP2 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034273310.1). The N-terminus of this query (coding regions 1 to 3) hit unannotated regions on Burmese python scaffold 4970. The C-terminus of this query (coding regions 4 to 8) hit Burmese python transcript XM_025174219.1 on this same scaffold. TYRP2 was annotated as the union of coding regions 1 to 3 and C-terminal five coding regions of transcript XM_025174219.1. Transcript XM_025174219.1 contains a sixth coding region that does not match TYRP2 and was therefore excluded from the gene annotation. The boundaries of coding regions 1 to 3 were built to match the boundaries conserved across species (coding region 1, 5’-ATG GCC TTC CTG CTG….GTT GCC AAT GCA CAG-3’; coding region 2, 5’-GAC ATT TTG CTG GCT….GAG ATA CTC TAT TAG-3’; coding region 3, 5’-GAC CAG GCC GTC CCT. GAA AGA GAT CTG CAG-3’).

OCA2

The Burmese python genome was queried using OCA2 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034287267.1). The N-terminus of this query (coding regions 1 to 9) hit Burmese python transcript XM_025173964.1 on scaffold 4704. The C-terminus of this query (coding regions 10 to 24) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007433276.1 on scaffold 2194. OCA2 was annotated as the union of these transcripts. The 5’ boundary of coding region 10 was adjusted to match the boundary conserved across species (5’-ATT GTC CAC AGG ACA…).

SLC7A11

The Burmese python genome was queried using SLC7A11 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034257397.1). All regions of the query hit Burmese python transcript XM_007430906.3 on scaffold 1543. SLC7A11 was annotated as transcript XM_007430906.3, with no further adjustments.

SLC24A5

The Burmese python genome was queried using SLC24A5 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034290605.1) extended at its N-terminus to an upstream start codon present in the parent transcript (XM_034434714.1). The N-terminus of the query (coding region 1) hit an unannotated region on Burmese python scaffold 3984. The C-terminus of this query (coding regions 2 to 9) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007438007.2 on this same scaffold. SLC24A5 was annotated as the union of coding region 1 and transcript XM_007438007.2. The boundaries of coding region 1 were built to match the boundaries conserved across species (5’-ATG CAG CCT GCC GAG….TCC GCG AGG ATC CCG -3’). The 5’ boundary of coding region 2 was adjusted to match the boundary conserved across species (5’-AGA ACG AAA CCC GCT…).

SLC45A2

The Burmese python genome was queried using SLC45A2 protein sequence from corn snake (XP_034298386.1). The N-terminal region of this query (coding regions 1 and 2) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007432459.2 on scaffold 1939. The C-terminal region of this query (coding regions 5 to 7) hit Burmese python transcript XM_007437721.2 on scaffold 3858. SLC45A2 was annotated as the union of these transcripts.

DNA extraction

Sheds were rinsed in tap water to remove dirt and debris. Sheds were air dried and lysed overnight at ∼60°C in ∼1 ml lysis buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 100 mM EDTA, 2% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 3 mM CaCl₂, 2 mg/ml Proteinase K) per ∼8 cm² piece of shed. Lysate was separated from visible fragments of undigested shed and further cleared by centrifugation at 13,000 x g for 2 min. To precipitate protein, ammonium acetate was added to supernatant to a final concentration of 1.875 M. Samples were incubated on ice for 5-10 min and centrifuged at 13,000 x g for 3-5 min at 4°C. Supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of magnetic bead mixture (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA, 1.6 M NaCl, 0.2% Tween-20, 11% polyethylene glycol, 0.04% washed SpeedBeads [Sigma #GE45152105050250]), and samples shaken for 5-10 min. Beads were separated from supernatant using a magnet, washed twice in 0.2 ml 70% ethanol for 2 min, and air dried for ∼1 min. DNA was eluted from beads in TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA) at 65°C for >5 min.

Primer design and PCR

Primers were designed against the genome of Burmese python or against genomic sequences from ball python obtained in an earlier step of the study. Primers were designed using Primer3 [109], using default parameters and a target annealing temperature of 60°C. Amplification was first tested at 57°C, to allow for occasional divergence between ball python and Burmese python genomic sequences. In some cases, annealing temperatures were later adjusted to 52°C, 60°C, or 61°C, to obtain stronger product or to eliminate background bands.

Genomic fragments were amplified using OneTaq polymerase (NEB #M0480) or Q5 polymerase (NEB #M0491). Genotyping assays described below used OneTaq, unless otherwise specified. OneTaq reactions consisted of 1X OneTaq Standard Reaction Buffer, 200 µM dNTPs, 0.2 µM of each primer, and 0.025 U/µl OneTaq polymerase. OneTaq thermocycling conditions were as follows: 94°C for 2 min; 30-35 cycles of 94°C for 30 sec, 52-61°C for 30 sec, and 68°C for 1-4 min; and 68°C for 5 min. Q5 reactions consisted of 1X Q5 Reaction Buffer, 200 µM dNTPs, 0.5 µM of each primer, and 0.02 U/µl Q5 polymerase. Q5 thermocycling conditions were as follows: 98°C for 30 sec; 30-35 cycles of 98°C for 10 sec, 58-61°C for 15 sec, and 72°C for 1.5-3 min; and 72°C for 5 min. Reactions used 10-100 ng template DNA per 20 µl volume.

Sanger sequencing

PCR products were purified for Sanger sequencing using magnetic beads or gel extraction. For magnetic-bead purification, PCR reactions were mixed with three volumes of magnetic-bead mixture (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 1 mM EDTA, 1.6-2.5 M NaCl, 0.2% Tween-20, 11-20% polyethylene glycol, 0.04% washed SpeedBeads [Sigma #GE45152105050250]), and agitated for 5 min. Beads were separated from supernatant using a magnet, washed twice in 0.2 ml 80% ethanol for >30 sec, and air-dried for 30 sec. PCR products were eluted from beads in 10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0 for >3 min at 65°C. Gel extraction was performed using QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen #28704), according to the manufacturer guidelines. Sanger sequencing was performed by Eton Bioscience Inc (etonbio.com).

Sequencing of coding regions and comparison to Burmese python

Coding regions of melanogenesis genes were amplified and sequenced using primers given in S3 Table. Chromatograms were trimmed using SnapGene Viewer (snapgene.com/snapgene-viewer) and aligned to one another or to genomic sequences from Burmese python using ApE (jorgensen.biology.utah.edu/wayned/ape). Alignments were examined manually to identify divergent and polymorphic sites. Sequence identity between ball python and Burmese python was calculated across alignable sequence, excluding indels.

Association study genotyping

Variants for the association study were identified through amplification and pilot sequencing of genomic fragments from five animals (four Non-Albinos and one Albino). For TYR, TYRP1, and TYRP2, we identified one or more genomic fragments containing multiple polymorphic sites within the same amplicon. These genomic fragments were selected for the association study. For OCA2, we did not identify any genomic fragments containing multiple polymorphic sites; we therefore selected two genomic fragments each containing a single polymorphic site. Divergence between the Albino animal and the other four animals was not a criterion for inclusion of variants in the association study. Variants were genotyped by amplifying and sequencing genomic fragments containing the variants. Locations of variants and primers used for amplifying and sequencing variants are given in S1 Table. Genotypes are provided in S6 Table.

Haplotype reconstruction

Haplotypes were reconstructed using PHASE version 2.1 [91,92]. Parameters were set to 200 iterations, a thinning interval of 2, and a burn-in parameter of 100. These settings produced identical or nearly identical output for seven runs seeded with different random numbers; thus, these settings met the criteria for effective choice of parameter settings, according to the PHASE documentation). The case-control permutation test was performed by comparing Albinos to Non-Albinos.

Genotyping assays for TYR

TYR missense variants D394G and P384L were genotyped by amplifying and sequencing a genomic fragment containing TYR coding region 3. This fragment was amplified using primers 13F (5’-ACT TTC AGG TGG GCA GCA G-3’) and 13R (5’-GCT GAC AAC TAA AAT CTC TGC AA-3’) and an annealing temperature of 52°C. The amplicon was sequenced using primer 13F. Genotypes are provided in S6 Table.

TYR promoter and intronic regions are amplified using primers given in S4 Table. Promoter fragments were sequenced in full, and intronic fragments were sequenced from one end, to confirm that the correct region of the genome had been amplified. Sequencing primers are given in S4 Table. Size differences among intronic fragments were assessed by separating fragments on a 1.25% agarose gel. Gels were run long enough for the shortest ladder band (100 bp) to migrate ∼8 cm from its starting position.

Allele sizes of the variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) in TYR were genotyped by amplifying a genomic fragment located in TYR intron 3, using primers 214F (5’-TCT CAC CTG ATG GCA CAT TC-3’) and 209R (5’-GTG CCC ACC CTG ATG TTA TT-3’) and an annealing temperature of 60°C. Amplicon sizes were analyzed as for intronic fragments, described above.

Genotyping assays for OCA2

The OCA2 deletion was initially identified by amplifying and sequencing a genomic fragment spanning OCA2 coding region 18. This fragment was amplified using primers 218F (5’-ACC CCG TAG CCT CTT CAA AT-3’) and 166R (5’-TGG GTG GCA AAC AAT CAT AA-3’), an annealing temperature of 60°C, and Q5 polymerase. Amplicons were sequenced using both primers.

The OCA2 deletion was genotyped after its initial identification using a three-primer PCR assay. This assayed used one forward primer and two reverse primers. The forward primer and one of the reverse primers were located outside the deletion: 217F (5’-GGA GAG AGA ATC CAA CCC TTG -3’) and 166R (5’-TGG GTG GCA AAC AAT CAT AA-3’). The second reverse primer was located within the deletion: 188R (5’-CAA AGA CCA TTG TCC ATT TCC-3’). The annealing temperature was 57°C. This assay produces a 429-bp product for the wildtype allele and a 349-bp product for the deletion allele. Heterozygotes produce both products. Genotypes are provided in S6 Table.

Genotyping assays for TYRP1

TYRP1 missense variant R305H was genotyped by amplifying and sequencing a genomic fragment spanning TYRP1 coding region 4. This fragment was amplified using primers 18F (5’-GCT CTT TTC TCT AAG TCT GAC CTC -3’) and 18R (5’-TCT TGT CCC ACA AAA GGA TTT -3’) and an annealing temperature of 57°C. The amplicon was sequenced using primer 18F.

The putative deletion of TYRP1 coding regions 6 and 7 was identified using primers given in S5 Table. The putative deletion was genotyped after its initial identification by amplifying a genomic fragment of TYRP1 spanning coding regions 6 and 7. This fragment was amplified using primers 20F (5’-GCA TTG TTT TAT CAG CCA TGA A-3’) and 21R (5’-GGA ATT GAG ACA AAT CCT TGG-3’) and an annealing temperature of 57°C. Genotypes are provided in S6 Table.

Protein sequence alignment

Protein sequences were aligned using Clustal Omega [110], using default parameters.

Data availability

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. DNA sequences are available from GenBank, under accession numbers MZ269492-MZ269502.

Funding information

This work was supported by a Faculty Research Fellowship and James H. Brickley Award from Eastern Michigan University to HSS and an Undergraduate Research Stimulus Program Award and a Don Brown and Meta Hellwig Undergraduate Research Award from Eastern Michigan University to ARB. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Supporting information

S1 Fig. Raw gel images. (A) Raw image of the gel displayed in Fig 2. (B) Raw image of the gel displayed in Fig 3. (C) Raw image of the gel displayed in Fig 4. Brightness and contrast settings have not been adjusted in these images. x, experiment unrelated to the current study.

S1 Table. Variants used in the Albino association study and primers to genotype these variants.

S2 Table. Conservation of gene structure of melanogenesis genes.

S3 Table. Primers to amplify and sequence coding regions of melanogenesis genes. S4 Table. Primers to amplify non-coding regions of TYR.

S5 Table. Primers to investigate the putative deletion in TYRP1. S6 Table. Genotypes.

Acknowledgements

We thank Matt Rockman and Katy Greenwald for advice on haplotype reconstruction; Bob Winning, Anne Casper, David Kass, and two anonymous reviewers for comments on the manuscript; and the Educational Course Support program of New England BioLabs for reagents used in undergraduate teaching labs. We thank the following individuals for contributing ball python sheds: Adam and Nicole Schmid; Alycia Butler; Amanda Hall; Andelyn Czajka; Brad Carter of Driftless Reptiles; Bryan Rivera; Chiron Graves; Chun Ku of Dynasty Reptiles; Dale Porcher; Daniel Ross; David Wolf of Tornado Alley Reptiles; David Burstein; Dawn and Kelsi Greene of Super Natural Balls; Dayna Plehn; Debby Brauer; Epic Vibrant Balls; Eric Chung of Chung Reptiles; Erin Burt; George Straub; Haily McCullough; Jaden Christensen; Jake Lewis; Jamie Palazzo of New Day Reptiles; Jeff Kearns; Jeff Linton; Jodi Wilkowski; Joe Myers; John Cordone of Blue Water Reptiles; Jordan Noland; Justin Kobylka of J. Kobylka Reptiles; Lindsay VanOrman; Lisa Huis; Manuel San Juan; Mark Bilger; Lynnet Melton; Maryann Barbon; Mia Hynes; Michael, Lisa, and Bodie Cole of Ballroom Pythons South; Morgan Evans and Michael Kitto of MK Pythons; Morgan Shelton; Paul and Amber Fiorito of Vivid Scales; Pets ‘n’ Things of Saline, MI; Rachel Voyt; Royal Black Balls; Ryan Boyd and Brittney Delacruz; Ryan Young of Molecular Reptile; Sergio McDole; Stephanie S. Crisp; Steve P. of Prime Pets; Zac Parpart; and several anonymous contributors. We thank the following individuals for providing images of color morphs: Beth Woodyard; Cat Church; Cormier Jason; Christine Miller; Darin Taylor; Daniel Hatcher; David C. Callahan; Donald Grinstead; Elijah Snyder; Innovative Ectotherms; Jake Lewis; Jessica Allison; Jessica Van Riper; Justin Kobylka; James Thompson; Justin Revington; Mariette van Vuuren; Mark Hopkins; Mark Smith; Matthew Lopez; Michael Freedman of The Florida Reptile Ranch; Morgan Evans; Phil Barclay, Robert Cooper; Ron Heisenberg; Ryan Young; Selectively Bred Serpents; Seb Des Légendes Celtiques; and Thananan Jivaramonaikul.

Most of the data in this study were collected by undergraduates enrolled in a laboratory course at Eastern Michigan University. These students constitute the BIO306W Consortium. These students were Alexandra Ernst, Alia Frederick, Alissa Zoltowski, Amber Northcutt, Andraya Ackerman, Anna Pathammavong, Annette Miller, Ashly Matzek, Asra Akhlaq, Aubrey Martin, Bailey Knight, Benjamin Huff, Beth Wasserman, Brian Donald Condron, Caleb Sommer, Cassandra Rigor, Charles Southwell, Chase Chitwood, Chelsea Brown, Christina Roka, Ciarra Womack, Clay McKenzie, Daniela Nappo, Darby Fracassa, Deirdre McCarter, Dhruvalkumar Patel, Dominic Paoletti, Drake Dzierwa, Erica R. Geml, Erin Bissett, Ezekiel Butcher, Garrett Chance, Garry Lewis, Genesis Garmendia, Geo Pullockaran, Hajer Musa Abuzir, Haley Praski, Hanan Alroaini, Iqra Akhlaq, Ismael Yasin, Janelle Aethyr, Janelle Janisse, Jayce Alee Perysian, Jemar Rooks, Jonathan Chang, Jonathan Harris, Joseph H. Oberlitner, Joshua Mason, Juwan Taylor, Kailynn Sparks, Karissa Urban, Karli Siefman, Kealy Szymanski, Kelsy Roque, Keyan Marshall, Khaled Ali, Karleigh Hassenzahl, Kylie Powrie, Lauren Colone, Lissette Rosas, Manoj Perumallapalli, Mariam Samir, Maryam Nimer, Maya Mackey, Megan McNulty, Mel Roberts, Micaela Schempf, Molly Cook, Myah Kelly, Nahiel Sukar, Natalie Diaz, Natasha MacKay, Nathan Barnett, Nathaniel Gonzalez, Noura Taybeh, Pablo De la Vega, Rida Ali, Ronnie Bryans, Ryan Elliott, Saja Hussein, Samantha Glowacki, Samuel Teener, Sarah Holtzen, Sarah Schmidt, Shanti Bernstein, Shelan Mizuree, Smarpita Singh, Stevie Zabrosky, Taia Broadbent, Tommiea Robertson, Tyler Schallhorn, Verginio Persicone, William Soder, Wolfgang Ebersole, and Yvette Campbell.

Footnotes

• ^ The BIO306W Consortium comprises students in an undergraduate laboratory course at Eastern Michigan University. Students are listed in the Acknowledgments.