Abstract
Echinoids are key components of modern marine ecosystems. Despite a remarkable fossil record, the emergence of their crown group is documented by few specimens of unclear affinities, rendering their early history uncertain. The origin of sand dollars, one of its most distinctive clades, is also unclear due to an unstable phylogenetic context. We employ seventeen novel genomes and transcriptomes to build a dataset with a near-complete sampling of major lineages and use it to revise the phylogeny and divergence times of echinoids. We introduce the concept of a chronospace—a multidimensional representation of node ages—and use it to explore the effects of using alternative gene samples, models of molecular evolution, and clock priors. We find the choice of clock model to have the strongest impact on divergence times, while gene sampling and the use of site-heterogeneous models show little effects. Crown group echinoids originated in the Permian and diversified rapidly in the Triassic. We clarify the relationships among sand dollars and their close relatives, showing that Apatopygus represents a relict lineage with a deep Jurassic origin. Sand dollars are confidently dated to the Cretaceous, implying ghost ranges spanning approximately 50 million years, a remarkable discrepancy with their fossil record.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
