Abstract
Microorganisms survive and compete within their environmental niches and avoid evolutionary stagnation by stochastically acquiring mutations that enhance fitness. Although increased mutation rates are often deleterious in multicellular organisms, hypermutation can be beneficial for microbes in the context of strong selective pressures. To explore how hypermutation arises in nature and elucidate its consequences, we employed a collection of 387 sequenced clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans. This fungal pathogen is responsible for ∼15% of annual AIDS-related deaths and is associated with high mortality rates, attributable to a dearth of antifungal drugs and increasing drug resistance. Isolates were screened for the ability to rapidly acquire antifungal drug resistance, and two robust hypermutators were identified. Insertion of the non-LTR Cnl1 retrotransposon was found to be responsible for the majority of drug-resistant isolates. Long-read whole-genome sequencing revealed both hypermutator genomes have two unique features: 1) hundreds of Cnl1 copies organized in subtelomeric arrays on both ends of almost all chromosomes, and 2) a nonsense mutation in the first exon of ZNF3, a gene encoding an RNAi component involved in silencing transposons. Quantitative trait locus mapping identified a significant genetic locus associated with hypermutation that includes the mutant znf3 allele, and CRISPR-mediated genome editing of the znf3 single-base pair nonsense mutation abolished the hypermutation phenotype and restored siRNA production. In sum, hypermutation and drug resistance in these isolates results from loss of RNAi combined with subsequent accumulation of a large genomic burden of a novel transposable element in C. neoformans.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
