Abstract
Purpose This study defines correlative and causal relationships between muscle strength and size before and after unilateral resistance training (RT) in a large cohort of healthy adults, focusing on sex differences within these relationships.
Methods Results from 1233 participants (504 males and 729 females) in a retrospective analysis were included. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength (MVC), one-repetition maximum strength (1RM), biceps cross-sectional area (CSA) and elbow flexor volume (VOL) measures of the non-dominant and dominant arm were evaluated from baseline and after 12-wk RT twice per week. Correlations of MVC and VOL and 1RM and VOL were calculated in the whole cohort and within each sex independently. Causal analysis modeling was used to infer mechanistic relationships among variables.
Results Absolute muscle strength and size related to one another both at baseline and following training, however correlation strength in each sex were weak. After RT, MVC relative change and VOL relative change correlations were correlated for the whole cohort (r=0.16; p<0.001) and females (r=0.18; p<0.001), but not in males (r=0.11; p=0.07). No significant correlations for relative change in 1RM and VOL were observed for the whole cohort or within sex. Causal discovery determined that change in VOL caused significant change in 1RM (but not MVC) and age was identified as a potential cause.
Conclusions Sex differences occur in muscle size and strength relationship adaptations following resistance training, most notably the absence of significant relationships between relative size and strength changes in men. Simpson’s paradox bias, where assessing the combined data of males and females (also affecting overall sample size) affects identifies patterns differently than assessing relationships within each sex, may partially explain our findings.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
Footnotes
↵* Posthumous
