Evolutionary loss of foot muscle during development with characteristics of atrophy and no evidence of cell death

Summary

Many species that run or leap across sparsely vegetated habitats, including hooved animals like horses and deer, evolved the severe reduction or complete loss of foot muscles as skeletal elements elongated and digits were lost. Although entire groups of muscles were lost repeatedly throughout vertebrate evolution, the developmental mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we report the natural loss of intrinsic foot muscles in a small bipedal rodent, the lesser Egyptian jerboa (Jaculus jaculus). Although adults have no muscles in their feet, the early stages of myoblast migration and fusion proceed normally to form multinucleated myofibers in most anatomical locations that are orthologous to other rodents. However, all cells with muscle identity rapidly disappear soon after birth. We were surprised to find no evidence of apoptotic or necrotic cell death and no stimulation of a local immune response during stages of peak myofiber loss. We instead see hallmarks of muscle atrophy, including an ordered disassembly of the sarcomere apparatus associated with upregulation of the E3 ubiquitin ligases, MuRF1 and Atrogin-1. We propose that the natural loss of muscle, which remodeled foot anatomy during evolution and development, involves cellular mechanisms that are typically associated with disease or injury.