Abstract
We present a simple model of within-group leveling coalitions among male primates. The model assumes that the value of the coalition is the sum of the payoffs of its members, that the individual’s payoff is monotonically decreasing with its rank and that coalitions do not cause rank changes. It predicts that mainly mid- to low rankers engage in leveling coalitions, and that most coalition partners are of adjacent ranks. These predictions agree reasonably well with observations in nature. The model also makes the novel predictions that leveling coalitions are found where male mating competition has only a moderate contest component, and that male dominance ranks will become poorly differentiated where leveling coalitions are frequent. Both these predictions are consistent with observations on groups of macaques and baboons. The model also may account for leveling coalitions among egalitarian human foragers, without making additional assumptions about special human capabilities.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In this model coalitions of size one are allowed, in agreement with standard usage in game theory, but unlike usage in animal behavior.
References
Alberts S, Watts H, Altmann J (2003) Queuing and queue jumping: long term patterns of dominance rank and mating success in male savannah baboons. Anim Behav 65:821–840
Altmann J, Alberts S, Haines S, Dubach J, Muruthi P, Coote T, Geffen E, Cheesman D, Mututua R, Saiyalel S, Wayne R, Lacy R, Bruford M (1996) Behavior predicts genetic structure in a wild primate group. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:5797–5801
Altmann S (1962) A field study of the sociobiology of the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. Ann NY Acad Sci 102:338–435
Bercovitch FB (1988) Coalitions, cooperation and reproductive tactics among adult male baboons. Anim Behav 36:1198–1209
Boehm C (1999) Hierarchy in the forest: the evolution of egalitarian behavior. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Bulger JB (1993) Dominance rank and access to estrous females in male savanna baboons. Behaviour 127:67–103
Connor RC, Smolker RA, Richards AF (1992) Dolphin alliances and coalitions. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 415–443
Connor RC, Heithaus RM, Barre LM (1999) Superalliance of bottlenose dolphins. Nature 371:571–572
Drews C (1996) Context and patterns of injuries in free-ranging male baboons (Papio cynocephalus). Behaviour 133:443–474
Engh AL, Esch K, Smale L, Holekamp KE (2000) Mechanisms of maternal rank ‘inheritance’ in the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta). Anim Behav 60:323–332
Harcourt AH (1992) Coalitions and alliances: are primates more complex than non-primates. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals.. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 445–471
Hooff, J van, van Schaik C (1992) Cooperation in competition: the ecology of primate bonds. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 357–389
Huffman MA (1991) Mate selection and partner preferences in female Japanese macaques. In: Fedigan LM, Asquith PJ (eds.) The monkeys of Arashiyama: thirty-five years of research in Japan and the west. State University of New York Press, Albany, pp 101–122
Kahan JP, Rapoport A (1984) Theories of coalition formation. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J.
Kuester J, Paul A (1992) Influence of male competition and female mate choice on male mating success in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Behaviour 120:192–217
Łomnicki A (1988) Population ecology of individuals. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Marlowe F (2000) Paternal investment and the human mating system. Behav Proc 51:45–61
Maynard Smith J, Parker GA (1976) The logic of asymmetric contests. Anim Behav 24:159–175
Noë R (1989) Coalition formation among male baboons. PhD thesis, University of Utrecht, Netherlands
Noë R (1990) A veto game played by baboons: a challenge to the use of the prisoner’s dilemma as a paradigm for reciprocity and cooperation. Anim Behav 39:78–90
Noë R (1992) Alliance formation among male baboons: shopping for profitable partners. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 285–321
Noë R (1994) A model of coalitions formation among male baboons with fighting ability as the crucial parameter. Anim Behav 47:211–213
Noë R, Sluijter AA (1995) Which adult male savanna baboons form coalitions? Int J Primatol 16:77–105
Noordwijk M van (1985) Sexual behaviour of Sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Z Tierpsychol 70:277–296
Noordwijk M van, van Schaik C (2004) Sexual selection and the careers of primate males: paternity concentration, dominance acquisition tactics and transfer decisions. In: Kappeler P, van Schaik C (eds) Sexual selection in primates. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (in press)
Nunn CL (1999) The number of males in primate social groups: a comparative test of the scioecological model. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 46:1–13
Packer C (1977) Reciprocal altruism in Papio anubis. Nature 265:441–443
Parker GA (1974) Assessment strategy and the evolution of animal conflicts. J Theor Biol 47:223–243
Pope T (1990) The reproductive consequences of male cooperation in the red howler monkey: paternity exclusion in multi-male and single-male troops using genetic markers. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 27:439–446
Schaik CP van (1989) The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates. In: Standen V, Foley RA (eds) Comparative socio-ecology: the behavioural ecology of humans and other mammals. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 195–218
Smuts BB (1985) Sex and friendship in baboons. Aldine, New York
Smuts BB, Watanabe JM (1990) Social relationships and ritualized greetings in adult male baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis). Int J Primatol 11:147–172
Sterck EHM, Watts DP, van Schaik CP (1997) The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 41:291–309
Waal FBM de (1992) Coalitions as part of reciprocal relations in the Arnhem chimpanzee colony. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 233–257
Waal FBM de, van Hooff JARAM (1981) Side-directed communication and agonistic interactions in chimpanzees. Behaviour 77:164–198
Waal FBM de, Harcourt AH (1992) Coalitions and alliances: a history of ethological research. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 1–19
Watanabe K (1979) Alliance formation in a free-ranging troop of Japanese macaques. Primates 20:459–474
Watanabe K (2001) A review of 50 years of research on the Japanese monkeys of Koshima: status and dominance. In: Matsuzawa T, Matsuzawa T (eds) Primate origins of human cognition and behavior. Springer, Tokyo Berlin Heidelberg, pp 405–417
Zabel CJ, Glickman SE, Frank LG, Woodmansee KB, Keppel G (1992) Coalition formation in a colony of prepubertal spotted hyenas. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 113–135
Acknowledgements
We thank Becca Lewis, Gauri R. Pradhan and Maria van Noordwijk for careful reading of the manuscript, and Ronald Noë and an anonymous reviewer for valuable and thoughtful comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by C. Nunn
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pandit, S.A., van Schaik, C.P. A model for leveling coalitions among primate males: toward a theory of egalitarianism. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 55, 161–168 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-003-0692-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-003-0692-2