L-type voltage-gated calcium channel blockade with isradipine as a therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease
Graphical Abstract
Research Highlights
►Intracellular amyloid β expression induces calcium influx in MC65 cells. ►Aβ neurotoxicity parallels intracellular calcium influx. ►L-type voltage-gated calcium channel blockers prevent Aβ-associated neurotoxicity. ►Isradipine appears to be the most potent calcium channel blocker. ►Isradipine is bioavailable to the brain in nanomolar concentrations.
Introduction
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive, age-related neurodegenerative disease that impairs memory and learning by affecting selective neuronal populations predominantly in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Accumulation of extracellular beta-amyloid (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau are the pathologic hallmarks of AD. In both early-onset familial and late-onset sporadic forms of AD, a 4-kDa Aβ peptide cleavage product of two key enzymatic reactions mediated by β and γ secretases has been considered a causal factor of AD (Selkoe, 2000, Selkoe, 2001, Selkoe, 2004, Tanzi & Bertram, 2005). The fragment sizes of Aβ vary between 39 and 43 amino acid residues, with Aβ40 being the most common species and Aβ42, a longer, hydrophobic species with a tendency to be more fibrillogenic. Recent studies demonstrate that a soluble form of oligomeric Aβ is more toxic than the monomeric form, and consequently a conscious effort has been made to reconstitute oligomers from monomers in the laboratory setting to demonstrate toxicity in neuronal cells (Li et al., 2009, Picone et al., 2009, Pitt et al., 2009, Poon et al., 2009, Sondag et al., 2009). Evidence from animals models of AD places a particular importance on the accumulation of intraneuronal Aβ oligomers and their role in early pathogenesis of AD (Billings et al., 2005, Golde & Janus, 2005).
Most of our current knowledge of Aβ oligomer toxicity appears to stem from studies that determine the effects of external application of reconstituted, synthetic oligomers. Although these studies have contributed greatly to our knowledge, models of AD that explore the pathomechanisms of intracellular Aβ oligomers have generally been limited. In vitro studies utilizing human neuroblastoma (MC65) cells appear to overcome, at least partially, the limitations of previous methods because they eliminate the need to externally apply Aβ oligomers. MC65 cells are stably transfected with the amyloid precursor protein (APP)-C99 gene and conditionally express a fusion protein composed of the amino-17 and carboxyl-99 residue-containing fragment of APP (Sopher et al., 1996, Sopher et al., 1994). Expression is controlled by a tetracycline-responsive promoter whose activity is repressed in the presence of tetracycline (Tet+). Removal of tetracycline (Tet−) leads to expression of the C-terminal APP fragment and subsequent processing of this fragment into Aβ followed by accumulation of intracellular Aβ oligomers, and precipitous cell death by 3–4 days (Sopher et al., 1996, Sopher et al., 1994). Specific inhibition of γ-secretase in these cells can rescue MC65 cells from death, further confirming that Aβ production triggers the neurotoxicity (Maezawa et al., 2006). Various antioxidants and chemical chaperones provide protection against Aβ-induced death of MC65 cells and these neuroprotective effects are associated with prevention of oligomer formation (Hong et al., 2007, Jin et al., 2002, Lin et al., 2009, Woltjer et al., 2007, Woltjer et al., 2005b).
The precise mechanism of Aβ-mediated cell death in MC65 cells or in AD, however, is still unclear. The Ca2+ hypothesis suggests that intracellular calcium increase in response to Aβ oligomer formation may lead to neuronal cell dysfunction and death in AD (Bezprozvanny and Mattson, 2008). Mechanisms that perturb normal neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis include aberrant Ca2+ influx through plasma membrane channels including the L-type voltage-gated Ca2+channels (L-VGCC) and N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors (Arispe et al., 1993, Pollard et al., 1993). Memantine, an antagonist of the NMDA- Ca2+ channel receptor, improves cognition and reduces AD-like neuropathology in mouse models of AD and has beneficial effects in AD patients (Martinez-Coria et al., 2010). Thus, treatments that interrupt aberrant Ca2+ influx may be promising therapeutic strategies for AD. L-VGCC blockers (CCBs) have demonstrated neuroprotection from Aβ in several paradigms utilizing external application of Aβ. In this study, we tested whether CCBs could inhibit neurotoxicity due to intracellular Aβ in MC65 cells. We compared the potency of four CCBs, and finally evaluated whether target brain levels could be achieved with the most promising candidate, isradipine, administered after the onset of AD pathology in a triple transgenic mouse model of AD.
Section snippets
Materials
Cell culture media, l-glutamine, and trypsin/EDTA were obtained from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA); fetal bovine serum was from Atlanta Biologicals (Lawrenceville, GA); and calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem, nimodipine, and isradipine) and thapsigargin (TPG) were from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). 6E10 monoclonal antibody was obtained from Covance Laboratories (Princeton, NJ), L-type Ca++ CP α1C antibody was obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA), and caspase-3
Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) protect MC65 cells from death
Cell survival in Tet− treatment was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower than Tet+ at 24, 48, and 72 h (Fig. 1A and B). In agreement with our previous findings, cell death increased progressively in response to tetracycline withdrawal and became severe after 72 h, as a direct result of increased expression of intracellular Aβ oligomer species (Woltjer et al., 2007, Woltjer et al., 2005b). The survival response to different CCB treatments was variable. Survival in verapamil was significantly (P < 0.05)
Discussion
Our study results demonstrate: (1) neuroprotection against Aβ toxicity by CCBs in a cell culture model of intracellular Aβ oligomer production, (2) efficacy of isradipine at nanomolar concentrations, and (3) generation of nanomolar brain concentrations of systemically administered isradipine in the 3xTg mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Our results in MC65 cells for the first time clearly show that after endogenous generation of Aβ oligomers, these cells up-regulate the expression of L-VGCCs.
Conclusion
Intracellular Ca2+ dysregulation in AD is emerging as a unifying mechanism of disease pathology. While the current study is focused on L-VGCC blockers, it is important to emphasize that Ca2+ trafficking is much more complex than described here, involving numerous organelles and mediators. This study shows that Aβ oligomers are strongly associated with increased intracellular Ca2+ and CCBs, especially isradipine, can prevent such an influx at nanomolar concentrations and protect MC65 cells.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by NIH/NEI 5R21 EY 018708-02 grant to TSA, financial support to TSA by NIH T32 AT002688-05 grant (P.I. Dr. Barry Oken), Department of Veterans Affairs Merit Review Grant to JFQ, and NIH P30AG008017 as well as the OHSU Dean's Award to RLW and JFQ. We thank Dr. Dennis Koop, Director of the OHSU Bioanalytical/ Pharmacokinetics Core Facility, for help with LC-MS/MS analysis.
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