Trends in Neurosciences
ReviewRegulation of dendrite morphogenesis by extrinsic cues
Section snippets
Extrinsic cues regulate distinct steps in dendrite morphogenesis
To establish proper connectivity, dendrites transition through fundamental developmental stages from growth and guidance, to branching and pruning, to self-avoidance and tiling. The regulation of dendrite patterning can be broadly divided into cell-extrinsic and cell-intrinsic mechanisms. In the nervous system, cell-extrinsic cues consist of secreted or transmembrane signals as well as neuronal activity in response to trans-synaptic transmission. By contrast, cell-intrinsic pathways represent
Neurotrophins
Neurotrophins represent a family of secreted proteins, consisting of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived growth factor (BDNF), neurotrophin 3 (NT-3), and neurotrophin 4 (NT-4), that act on neurons through members of the tyrosine receptor kinase (Trk) family [4]. In the rodent cerebral cortex, neurotrophins promote dendrite growth and arborization, but this effect varies depending on the specific neurotrophin, cortical layer, and location of the dendrites [5].
Specific deletion of the BDNF
Cadherins and protocadherins
Cell adhesion molecules such as the cadherin Flamingo (Fmi) as well as the protocadherins and atypical cadherins are crucial for dendrite tiling, self-avoidance, and arbor homeostasis 46, 47. In Drosophila, Fmi forms a complex with the LIM domain protein Espinas (Esn) in class IV dendritic arborization (da) neurons [48]. Genetic evidence suggests that Fmi–Esn signal downstream to molecules regulating cell polarity such as Van Gogh (Vang) and Rho, two proteins essential for self-avoidance.
Neuronal activity and calcium signaling
In addition to secreted and contact-mediated regulators, neuronal activity represents a key cue in the regulation of dendrite development. The effects of neuronal activity on dendrite development are mediated by calcium signals 76, 77. Recent studies have revealed that calcium transients promote dendrite pruning in Drosophila sensory neurons. Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) are responsible for generating compartmentalized calcium transients, and the calcium-activated protease calpain
Concluding remarks and future perspectives
During the past two decades, investigations of dendrite development have uncovered an enormously complex set of extrinsic cues and associated signaling mechanisms that regulate dendrite morphogenesis. We have discussed the major categories of regulators including secreted factors, contact-mediated cues, and neuronal activity as major extrinsic drivers of dendrite morphogenesis. A key observation emerging from these studies is that extrinsic cues regulate far more than dendrite morphogenesis,
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant NS084393 (to A.B.) and by the European Molecular Biology Organization (ALTF 889-2011 to P.V.). We thank members of the laboratory of A.B. for helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript.
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These authors contributed equally to the manuscript.
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Current address: Department of Otolaryngology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.