Mitochondrial genomes reveal the pattern and timing of marten (Martes), wolverine (Gulo), and fisher (Pekania) diversification
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The clade containing the martens (genus Martes, including M. foina, M. martes, M. zibellina, M. melampus, M. americana, M. flavigula, and M. gwatkinsii), the wolverine (Gulo gulo), the fisher (Pekania pennanti), and the tayra (Eira barbara) has recently been ranked as a subfamily and referred to as either Martinae (e.g., Fulton and Strobeck, 2006, Koepfli et al., 2008, Yu et al., 2011) or Guloninae (e.g., Sato et al., 2009, Sato et al., 2012, Wolsan and Sato, 2010, Wolsan, 2013). Here we use Guloninae Gray, 1825 because it has priority over Martinae Wagner, 1841 under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (Sato et al., 2009). It should be noted that the name Guloninae has indeed been referred recently to two different clades: (1) the crown clade of Martes, Gulo, Pekania, and Eira, and (2) the total clade of these four genera composed of the crown clade and its extinct paraphyletic stem group. Here we apply Guloninae to the crown clade, which follows the phylogenetic definition of this name as proposed in Wolsan and Sato, 2007, Wolsan and Sato, 2010.
Mainly due to ecomorphological differences, Martes and Gulo were long regarded as distantly related. Although regularly classified in the same carnivoran family (Mustelidae), these genera were often assigned to different subfamilies or tribes (e.g., Anderson, 1989, McKenna and Bell, 1997, Ginsburg, 1999, Pavlinov, 2003). Some morphological and ethological observations (Pocock, 1920, Krott, 1959, Rabeder, 1976, Sotnikova, 1982) and the results of early molecular studies (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1997, Koepfli and Wayne, 1998, Hosoda et al., 2000, Stone and Cook, 2002) suggested a closer affinity between both genera, but it is only in recent years that evidence pointing to the monophyly of these mustelids has been presented (Koepfli and Wayne, 2003, Koepfli et al., 2008, Wolsan and Sato, 2010, Yu et al., 2011, Sato et al., 2012). This evidence also indicated that the fisher (which was formerly commonly treated as congeneric with martens and accordingly referred to as Martes pennanti) is outside the Martes and Gulo clade. The fisher has therefore been reclassified in its own genus (Wolsan and Sato, 2005, Wolsan and Sato, 2007, Koepfli et al., 2008, Sato et al., 2012).
Molecular investigations within the last 20 years (Carr and Hicks, 1997, Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1997, Hosoda et al., 1997, Hosoda et al., 2000, Koepfli and Wayne, 1998, Koepfli and Wayne, 2003, Stone and Cook, 2002, Sato et al., 2003, Sato et al., 2009, Sato et al., 2012, Koepfli et al., 2008, Wolsan and Sato, 2010, Yu et al., 2011; and others) have considerably extended and refined knowledge on the pattern and timescale of gulonine phylogeny. Yet there are important issues that still remain to be elucidated, such as (1) the relative phylogenetic placement of Pekania and Eira, (2) the position of Gulo with respect to the subgenera Martes (containing M. foina [type species], M. martes, M. zibellina, M. melampus, and M. americana) and Charronia (containing M. flavigula [type species] and M. gwatkinsii), (3) the relationships within the subgenus Martes, and (4) the timing of gulonine divergences.
Various molecular markers offer specific advantages for evolutionary studies. The characteristics of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) such as relatively high nucleotide substitution rates, lack of recombination, uniparental inheritance, short coalescence time, and high copy number made mtDNA markers the choice of molecular evolutionary studies in the past three decades. Although these markers can be less accurate than nuclear DNA (nDNA) markers at deep levels of evolutionary divergence because of the higher substitution rate and hence faster accumulation of homoplasies over time, mtDNA markers can be more informative and effective than nDNA markers at shallow levels of divergence because the higher rates of sequence evolution in mtDNA enable rapid accumulation of informative character changes useful for phylogeny reconstruction and divergence time estimation. As mtDNA has a single gene history, whole-genome mtDNA sequence data can be used in a concatenated format. The analysis of the whole or majority of mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) data is more likely to provide accurate results than analyses of one or a few mtDNA markers because mitogenomes contain increased phylogenetic signal, which reduces the effect of homoplasy, and because they include increased number of characters, which decrease stochastic errors. With the recent rapid growth in the taxonomic coverage of complete mtDNA sequences, mitogenome analyses have become increasingly popular. These analyses have been shown to be useful for phylogenetic reconstruction and divergence time estimation across a wide range of vertebrate taxa from fishes (e.g., Inoue et al., 2010) through amphibians (e.g., San Mauro et al., 2014) to birds (e.g., Pacheco et al., 2011) and mammals (e.g., Pozzi et al., 2014).
In this study we used comparative nucleotide sequence information from whole mitogenomes to resolve the phylogenetic relationships between Gulo and the subgenera of Martes and among all extant species of the subgenus Martes, as well as to re-estimate Martes, Gulo, and Pekania divergence times.
Section snippets
Sequence data sets
Complete mitogenome sequences were gathered for eight species of Guloninae and two species of Melinae (Table 1). All extant gulonine species except Eira barbara and Martes gwatkinsii were sampled. An entire mitogenome from Martes martes was used for the first time. The melines were employed as an outgroup in all analyses. Choice of this outgroup was based on the results of recent molecular studies, which have recovered Melinae among close relatives of Guloninae (Sato et al., 2012 and references
Homoplasy levels
Given that the lesser the slope and R2 of the linear regression of patristic versus p distances the more homoplastic the data set (Table 2), 2CD was the least homoplastic partition; 3CD, CR, and, in a lesser degree, tRNA were more homoplastic than other partitions; and rRNA and 1CD were intermediate. MTG, MTGexclCR, and PCG showed similar levels of homoplasy, with MTG being the least homoplastic, PCG the most, and MTGexclCR intermediate.
Phylogeny reconstruction
All phylogenetic analyses on MTG, MTGexclCR, and PCG
Monophyly of the genus Martes
Until very recently, the genus Martes was commonly circumscribed to contain three subgenera: Martes, Charronia, and Pekania. This classification derived from morphological observations (Anderson, 1970) and has been questioned by molecular investigations, which have, with growing evidence, suggested the paraphyly of this circumscription relative to Gulo (Hosoda et al., 2000, Stone and Cook, 2002, Koepfli and Wayne, 2003, Sato et al., 2003, Flynn et al., 2005; and others). The identity of Pekania
Conclusions
The generic status of Pekania and the monophyly of Martes composed of the subgenera Martes and Charronia are strongly supported in this study, which presents a compelling resolution for the interrelationships of these taxa and Gulo. A long-awaited conclusive solution to the riddle of phylogenetic relations among M. martes, M. zibellina, M. melampus, and M. americana is also provided.
The accuracy and precision of previous gulonine divergence time estimates derived from multigene nDNA and
Author contributions
B.L. and M.W. conceived and designed the study; B.L., M.W., D.W., and Z.Z. collected the data; B.L., M.W., W.Z., and Y.X. analyzed the data; M.W. drafted the manuscript; and M.W., B.L., and Y.X. contributed to the final manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We thank three anonymous reviewers for their critical reading of the manuscript and constructive comments and suggestions. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant 31370392), the Special Fund of Forestry Industrial Research for Public Welfare of China (grant 201304809), and the National Science Centre, Poland (grant 2012/06/M/NZ8/00189).
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