Codeine is bioactivated to morphine, a strong opioid agonist, by the hepatic cytochrome P450
2D6 (CYP2D6); hence, the efficacy and safety of codeine are governed by CYP2D6 activity…

CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 polymorphisms affect the exposure, efficacy and safety of tricyclic
antidepressants (TCAs), with some drugs being affected by CYP2D6 only (eg, nortriptyline …

Opioids are mainly used to treat both acute and chronic pain. Several opioids are metabolized
to some extent by CYP2D6 (codeine, tramadol, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and methadone…

Background Ketamine has been associated with a unique spectrum of subjective "psychedelic"
effects in patients emerging from anesthesia. This study quantified these effects of …

Background CYP2E1, 1A2, and 3A4 have all been implicated in the formation of N‐acetyl‐p‐benzoquinone
imine (NAPQI), the reactive intermediate of acetaminophen (INN, …

Background Renal and hepatic toxicity of the fluorinated ether volatile anesthetics is caused
by biotransformation to toxic metabolites. Metabolism also contributes significantly to the …

The synthetic opioid fentanyl undergoes extensive metabolism in humans. Systemic
elimination occurs primarily by hepatic metabolism. When administered as a lozenge for oral …

Background Bispectral Index (BIS) has been used to measure sedation depth. Ideally, to
guide anesthetic management, range of BIS scores at different sedation levels should not …

Background The disposition of the long‐acting opioid methadone, used to prevent opiate
withdrawal and treat short‐ and long‐lasting pain, is highly variable. Methadone undergoes N‐…

Previous studies suggest that hepatic cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) activity is increased
in individuals with chronic alcoholism, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and morbid …