The problem of complex adaptations is studied in two largely disconnected research traditions:
evolutionary biology and evolutionary computer science. This paper summarizes the …

Measures of RNA abundance are important for many areas of biology and often obtained
from high-throughput RNA sequencing methods such as Illumina sequence data. These …

The fact that phenotypic evolution can be studied on a character by character basis suggests
that the body is composed of locally integrated units. These units can be considered as …

A network of interactions is called modular if it is subdivided into relatively autonomous,
internally highly connected components. Modularity has emerged as a rallying point for research …

Robustness is the invariance of phenotypes in the face of perturbation. The robustness of
phenotypes appears at various levels of biological organization, including gene expression, …

… Günter Wagner's book how to solve such recalcitrant de Beerian puzzles by their own, guided
by the author's expertise both as a gifted philosopher and first rank scientist. . . . Wagner's …

It was first noticed 100 years ago that mutations tend to affect more than one phenotypic
characteristic, a phenomenon that was called 'pleiotropy'. Because pleiotropy was found so …

Canalization is the suppression of phenotypic variation. Depending on the causes of
phenotypic variation, one speaks either of genetic or environmental canalization. Genetic …

Two structures are called homologous if they represent corresponding parts of organisms
which are built according to the same body plan (23, 33). The existence of corresponding …

Cell types are the basic building blocks of multicellular organisms and are extensively diversified
in animals. Despite recent advances in characterizing cell types, classification schemes …