For over a century, electrical microstimulation has been the most direct method for causally
linking brain function with behavior. Despite this long history, it is still unclear how the activity …

The early visual system is endowed with adaptive mechanisms that rapidly adjust gain and
integration time based on the local luminance (mean intensity) and contrast (standard …

Neurons in primary sensory cortex have diverse response properties, whereas higher
cortical areas are specialized. Specific connectivity may be important for areal specialization, …

The visual system is composed of diverse cell types that encode distinct aspects of the visual
scene and may form separate processing channels. Here we present further evidence for …

Sensory, motor and cognitive operations involve the coordinated action of large neuronal
populations across multiple brain regions in both superficial and deep structures 1 , 2 . Existing …

The local field potential (LFP) is increasingly used to measure the combined activity of
neurons within a region of tissue. Yet, available estimates of the size of this region are highly …

Circuits in the cerebral cortex consist of thousands of neurons connected by millions of
synapses. A precise understanding of these local networks requires relating circuit activity with …

Cranial window implants in head-fixed rodents are becoming a preparation of choice for
stable optical access to large areas of the cortex over extended periods of time. Here we …

The responses of neurons in lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) exhibit powerful suppressive
phenomena such as contrast saturation, size tuning, and masking. These phenomena …

Many thousands of cortical neurons are activated by any single sensory stimulus, but the
organization of these populations is poorly understood. For example, are neurons in mouse …